Occurrence and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in nuts and dried fruits from China

Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Mycotoxins in Ready-to-Eat Tree Nut Products through Ultra-High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled with High Resolution Q-Orbitrap Mass Spectrometry

“…As previously observed in almonds, walnut samples also contained ZEN and ZEN metabolites. In the same study conducted by Wang, Nie, Yan, Li, Cheng, and Chang [ 15 ], a high contamination with ZEN was observed in one sample ( n = 35) at 49.35 µg/kg, whereas Arroyo–Manzanares, Huertas–Pérez, Gámiz–Gracia, and García–Campaña [ 12 ] reported the presence of ZEN in one sample ( n = 6) at 221.8 µg/kg. These levels of contamination strongly vary from those here obtained, with concentrations below 1 µg/kg.…”

“…In a previous work conducted by Varga et al [ 22 ], AOH was found in one sample ( n = 8) at 1.5 µg/kg, more than three times the contamination here reported. Wang, Nie, Yan, Li, Cheng, and Chang [ 15 ] reported AOH contamination in four samples ( n = 25) with a maximum level of 54.24 µg/kg. On the contrary, aflatoxins are one the most studied toxins in every nut typology.…”

“…Therefore, sensitive analytical methods are required in order to understand the incidence of these toxins. In this line, Wang, Nie, Yan, Li, Cheng, and Chang [ 15 ] quantified AOH and AME in 23% and 31% of the walnut samples analyzed ( n = 35), respectively, with a LOQ of 2 µg/kg. AOH was quantified in a range of 5.78–142.9 µg/kg and AME ranged from 1.53 to 110.5 µg/kg.…”

“…In this line, Aspergillus and Fusarium genera have been characterized as other major pathogens in tree nuts, so their secondary toxic metabolites could also be expected [ 6 , 10 , 11 ]. Alongside aflatoxins, relevant toxins from the Fusarium genus included in the IARC classification, such as T-2 or zearalenone, have been evaluated in tree nut products [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. However, zearalenone-derived forms have been scarcely studied and, recently, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) highlighted the necessity to include these metabolites in risk assessment studies due to their estrogenic activity [ 18 ].…”

“…In addition, environmental conditions, geographical area, or harvest practices can lead to a strong variety among products regarding mycotoxin occurrence, so constant monitoring based on sensitive and multi-analyte methods are required for having proper mycotoxin profiles. The most recent methods for detecting mycotoxins in tree nuts are based on liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. However, other alternatives are able to provide a more precise detection and quantification.…”