“…Since titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) was first used in the electrochemical photolysis of water in 1972, researchers have developed a strong interest in TiO 2 [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. TiO 2 exhibits rich physical and chemical properties such as non-toxicity, high corrosion resistance, biocompatibility, and unique optoelectronic properties, allowing it to maintain good competitiveness in photocatalysis, sensors, dye-sensitized solar cells, and electrochemical energy storage, etc.…”