National image richness in us‐televised coverage of South Korea during the 1988 Olympics

Image Impacts of Planned Special Events: Literature Review and Research Agenda

“…One of the major causes of this situation can be the apparent disconnectedness in the existing literature: Hitherto, cross-referencing, important for research progress though, is not evident. When some researchers (e.g., Kim & Morrison, 2005; Lee, Taylor, Mossberg & Hallberg, 1999) lament that there is little relevant literature available, the fact is that some important studies (e.g., Gwinner, 1997;Ritchie & Smith, 1991;Rivenburgh, 1992) have already been published elsewhere. This lack of cross-referencing may have severely prevented more fruitful knowledge production on this aspect.…”

“…These results imply that special events tend to have positive rather than negative image impacts: Among the 53 studies, only 7.5% end up with negative impacts. Note that approximately one fifth of studies fail to report any actual impacts, because their focus is on projected rather than perceived images and examination of the former alone can hardly provide information on how such images will actually be perceived (Rivenburgh, 1992).…”

“…Rivenburgh (1992) provided a framework to assess projected image of event host countries. To fully appreciate the projected image, the author suggests measuring the following image dimensions: visibility, valence, breadth, and attribution (for detailed information see Rivenburgh, 1992). Dimanche (1997) suggested longitudinal research be adopted to measure the image impacts in the postevent period.…”

“…Special events are not hosted in a sociocultural vacuum (Getz, 1997;Hall, 2001); rather they are deeply embedded in the "glocal" sociocultural realities. Many studies find that ideology (Issue 4) (Berger, 2010;Dimeo & Kay, 2004;Giffard & Rivenburgh, 2000;Preuss & Alfs, 2011;Rivenburgh, 1992Rivenburgh, , 1995, politics (Issue 16) (Mangan, Ok, & Park, 2011;Paret, 1978), elitism (Issue 9) ( McCallum et al, 2005;O'Donnell, 2006;Reid, 2006), and gender (Issue 12) (Berger, 2010;Trump, 1998) can influence the nature of the event hosts' projected images. Briefly, these forces (among others) create an invisible "field," through which the hosts' projected images are usually filtered if not distorted.…”

“…A couple of studies on the 1988 Winter and Summer Olympics (Jaffe & Nebenzahl, 1993;Ritchie & Smith, 1991;Rivenburgh, 1992) heralded a significant increase of publications later on in this period. In total, 20 studies had emerged to examine the image of impacts of sport events (e.g., Chalip, Green, & Hill, 2003;Mossberg & Hallberg, 1999;Ritchie & Smith, 1991), sociocultural events (Richards & Wilson, 2004;Trump, 1998), political events (Giffard & Rivenburgh, 2000), and business events (Erfurt & Johnsen, 2003).…”