Nanotechnologies and Nanomaterials in 3D (Bio)printing toward Bone Regeneration

Abstract

The utilization of biomedical nanotechnologies and nanomaterials has surged in the field of 3D bone printing and bioprinting. As such, it is possible to reproduce the hierarchical structures and compositions of the native bone‐related tissues, allowing for regulating cell behaviors and tissue formation toward bone tissue engineering. The use of nanobiomedical systems may also enhance the shape fidelity and printability apart from endowing plentiful biological functions to the (bio)inks. Herein, first, the recently published literature on nanotechnologies and nanomaterials utilized for 3D bone (bio)printing is overviewed. Later, recent progress and challenges for osseous interface and vascularized bone reconstructions are discussed. Finally, the future prospectives and potential commercialization for 3D‐(bio)printed personalized bone implants are proposed.

(Bio)printing in Personalized Medicine—Opportunities and Potential Benefits

“…The emergence of new diseases and the increasing human population, suggest that over time the number of potential patients is anticipated to grow. Bioprinting might offer a solution to these issues, however many modifications and development are likely to be required in order to result in a living organ combining multiple cell types and materials [ 64 ].…”

The translational paradigm of nanobiomaterials: Biological chemistry to modern applications

“…Printability, structural integrity, biocompatibility, biosafety, and biofunctions of bioinks should be prioritized for the commercialization of 3D bioprinted products. A more advanced approach to bone tissue engineering may be conceivable with the successful integration of nanotechnology, nano biomaterials, and 3D printing technologies [122]. For instance, an allowable toxicity profile, higher biocompatibility, and biodegradability to verify scaffold removal without any need for an invasive surgery [265] are the utmost criteria for passing such trials.…”

“…3D bioprinting can allow the replication of bone-muscle-tendon and musculoskeletal interfaces resembling real tissues with controlled microstructures and biological compositions [120,121]. The incorporation of several nanomaterials like nanofibers and nanocrystals can be used to strengthen the physical and mechanical behavior of 3D printed bone implants with electro-spun nanofibers being the most prevalent [122,123]. To maintain the cell functionality and withstand the shear force, soft hydrogel-based matrices as bioinks are favored for 3D printing.…”

“…The human adipose-derived stem cell (hADSC)-laden alginate hydrogel was bio-printed with a strengthening poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanofiber to generate a tissue that can resemble the nanofibrous matrix of soft musculoskeletal tissue while maintaining its mechanical characteristics [128]. Similarly, 3D printing and nanofibrils can be utilized to improve the physical characteristics of a gelatin-based hydrogel that will be employed as reinforcement material and mimic the extracellular matrix (ECM) shape [122]. To aid bone regeneration, bioactive gold nanoparticles (GNPs) with tunable size and surface modification were used as a reinforcement material for a 3D printed PLA construct by fused deposition modeling (FDM) of a gelatinmethacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel which showed a stiffness level equivalent to natural bones.…”

Practical Use of Quartz Crystal Microbalance Monitoring in Cartilage Tissue Engineering

“…In such a manner, the whole process of artificial tissue formation can be divided into several independent steps that can be monitored in real-time to create the final 3D-bioprinted product. These include the choice of biomaterials, their interactions at nanoscale level, initial cellular behavior, and cell–biomaterial interactions [ 88 , 89 ]. The possibility to detect any deviations from the desired goal in the intermediate stages of 3D tissue formation enables rapid optimization and adjustment of several crucial parameters to assure suitable conditions for tissue growth and favorable outcome [ 90 , 91 ].…”