“…The literature on problem-solving skills in the context of pre-service teacher education is extensive, reflecting the widespread recognition of the importance of these skills for effective teaching practice (Cruickshank & Haefele, 2001;Fouche, 2024;Jonassen, 2011;Shulman, 1987). Studies have consistently emphasised the multifaceted nature of problem-solving in teaching, highlighting its role in addressing diverse classroom challenges, promoting student learning, and fostering teacher efficacy (Henson, 2003;Levy & Murnane, 2004;Sun & Rueda, 2019;Zeichner & Liston, 2014). Within this body of literature, various frameworks and models have been proposed to conceptualise problem-solving skills in teaching, including the reflective practitioner model (Schön, 1983), the pedagogical content knowledge framework (Shulman, 1987), and the adaptive expertise model (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986;Liu et al, 2024).…”