More on the Cost of Being Other Than White and Male:

Abstract

This article analyzes the estimated yearly earnings of white, black, and Hispanic males and white, black, and Hispanic females in order to determine two things: Whether white male earnings continue to exceed those of reference groups, and how the cost of being female (the gender effect) compares with the cost of being nonwhite (black or Hispanic). We find that white males earnings are still greater than those of other groups, but when earnings are adjusted for market related differences, most of the differentials for black and Hispanic (Mexican‐American, Puerto‐Rican) males disappear. Even after adjustment, however, a considerable portion of females earnings differentials remain unexplained. Gender effects are considerably larger than race or ethnic effects.

The Cost of Parenthood: Unraveling the Effects of Sexual Orientation and Gender on Income*

“…Along with variables measuring human capital characteristics, I also included measures of several important social and demographic variables known to affect earnings. First, I included a dummy variable indicating whether the individual is of a race other than white, as nonwhite individuals are likely to experience a wage penalty (Durden and Gaynor, 1998; Siegel, 1965). A dummy variable indicating whether an individual is Hispanic is also incorporated, due to the wage penalty commonly associated with Hispanic ethnicity (Durden and Gaynor, 1998; Poston, Alvirez, and Tienda, 1976).…”

“…First, I included a dummy variable indicating whether the individual is of a race other than white, as nonwhite individuals are likely to experience a wage penalty (Durden and Gaynor, 1998; Siegel, 1965). A dummy variable indicating whether an individual is Hispanic is also incorporated, due to the wage penalty commonly associated with Hispanic ethnicity (Durden and Gaynor, 1998; Poston, Alvirez, and Tienda, 1976). This penalty is often thought to accrue from language barriers; hence I also included a human capital variable measuring ability to speak fluent English (very well and well coded as 1, otherwise coded as 0).…”

“… 4 Other studies examining the earnings of women in particular have found that they are adversely affected by engaging in part‐time work (Badgett, 2001; Durden and Gaynor, 1998; Klawitter, 1998). Consequently, I focused the analysis on full‐time workers by dropping all individuals who worked under 40 hours a week. …”

Does whom you work with matter? Effects of referent group gender and age composition on managers' compensation.

“…Since the passage of the Equal Pay Act (1963), the Civil Rights Act (1964), and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (1967), particular attention has been devoted to studying differential relationships between demographic characteristics and performance and pay outcomes, with an eye toward identifying possible biases. A large number of studies have consistently documented pay differences based on gender and age of workers (e.g., Durden & Gaynor, 1998;Fields & Wolff, 1995;Lewis, 1998;Marini, 1989;McEvoy & Cascio, 1989). Although controversy continues to exist over the extent of these differences (Eagly, 1995) and whether these differences are due to discrimination or to other causes such as occupational segregation, self-selection, or educational and work history patterns (Marini, 1989), it is well documented that a wage gap favoring men exists and that negative stereotypes against older workers persist.…”

The return-on-education gap between hispanics and non-hispanic whites

“…Further, Neidert and Farley's (1985) analysis of the 1979 Current Population Survey showed that the significantly lower return on education for Mexican immigrants, when compared to non-Hispanic whites, persisted in the second and third generation. Earnings differences are also much larger for minority females than for males (Durden and Gaynor, 1998). In addition, self-employed Hispanics have greater earnings than employed Hispanics (Olson et al, 2000).…”