“…Such online operational behaviors, once properly interpreted, can reflect the students' online learning behaviors. Online learning behaviors are mostly calculated on the basis of frequency and time (Shang et al, 2020), including the total frequency of which a course was accessed (Asarta & Schmidt, 2013), the total frequency and total duration of which a resource was accessed (Morris et al, 2005), the total frequency or duration of which a teaching video was accessed (Lin et al, 2017;Lust et al, 2013;Ziebarth & Hoppe, 2014), the time of which a test was taken (Li & Baker, 2018), and the total number of posts created in online discussion (Sunar et al, 2018). After researchers collect these online learning behaviors, data cleaning must be performed to prevent bias caused by abnormal values (Agrawal et al, 2014), and the adequacy of the behavioral data collection must be verified (Dumais et al, 2014).…”