Monitoring Adherence to the International Code of Conduct: Highly Hazardous Pesticides in Central Andean Agriculture and Farmers' Rights to Health

Abstract

The WHO has advocated monitoring adherence to the Food and Agriculture Organization's Code of Conduct to reduce use of highly hazardous pesticides in lower and middle income countries. We re-framed Code articles in terms of farmers' rights and drew on survey data, farmer focus group results, and direct observations of agrochemical stores in Ecuador and Peru to construct indicators reflecting respect for such rights. Use of highly (Ia and Ib) and moderately (II) hazardous pesticides was common. Worse indicators were observed in places with lower education, greater poverty, and more use of indigenous languages. Limited government enforcement capacity, social irresponsibility of the pesticide industry, and lack of farmers' knowledge of the Code were all factors impeding respect for farmers' rights. Addressing the power imbalance among social actors requires informed farmer and farmworker participation in monitoring adherence and active involvement of non-governmental organizations and municipal governments.

Characterization of Pesticide Exposure in a Sample of Pregnant Women in Ecuador

“…Most notably, we found elevated levels of the ETU urinary metabolite in our entire sample (100% detection frequency at enrollment and 96% post-delivery). The ethylenebisdithiocarbamates, or EBDCs, are commonly used fungicides in agricultural production in Ecuador (Cole et al 1997; Orozco et al 2009). EBDCs are metabolized into a more toxic and carcinogenic compound, ETU, which has also been associated with decreased thyroid hormone levels and thyroid gland disorders (Houeto et al 1995; Panganiban et al 2004).…”

“…This result is indicative of the presence of chlorpyrifos. Studies on pesticides use in agricultural production in the northern highland region of Ecuador have reported moderate use of chlorpyrifos, but not at the same magnitude as the use of fungicides such as mancozeb (Orozco et al 2009; Schutz 2014). …”

Use of the Environmental Impact Quotient to Estimate Health and Environmental Impacts of Pesticide Usage in Peruvian and Ecuadorian Potato Production

“…comm.) and hence some overestimation in applicator exposure may occur in higher income countries, or even underestimation in developing countries where use of protective clothing is rare [4,29]. Greater bystander exposure might also be expected in lower and middle income countries where separation of agricultural operations and home life is less clear.…”

“…The product types and number of sprays commonly used are highly variable from one location to another. The use of highly hazardous (World Health Organization, WHO class Ia and Ib) and moderately hazardous (WHO class II) pesticides has been reported to be common [4]. A study done in 1999 in northern Peru [5] found that farmers applied fungicides 6 times on the average to their potato crops.…”

Community and household socioeconomic factors associated with pesticide-using, small farm household members' health: a multi-level, longitudinal analysis

“…In the Ecosalud II project, upon which this paper is based, analysis of 2005 baseline data from 24 communities in five cantons and three provinces demonstrated variation in pesticide-related knowledge and practices by the proportion of the cantonal population who were literate or indigenous [19]. We also observed community level variation in pesticide use and related health outcomes (poisoning and neurotoxic symptoms) [20].…”