“…For this reason, progress in this field of protein-or polypeptide-ligand interactions from the perspectives of the interaction thermodynamics and extrathermodynamics has somewhat been constrained despite its obvious pervasiveness across all areas of the biosciences and bio-technology. Important contributions have, however, been made by various investigators, including Horvath et al, 23,24,28,32,38,66 Andrade et al, 67,68 Hearn et al, [33][34][35][69][70][71] (unpublished observations) Norde et al, [19][20][21]72,73 Chen et al, 11,12,[59][60][61][62][63]74 Lenoff et al 75,76 and Stahlberg et al, 77,78 who have systematically investigated from thermodynamic or biophysical perspectives the energetics and mechanisms of the protein or polypeptide binding processes in liquid chromatography as well as in the more general scenarios of protein-or polypeptide-ligand docking to chemically modified surfaces. Several examples of these approaches to elucidate the interaction thermodynamics of proteins and polypeptides with ligands in the free or immobilised states are subsequently presented in this article.…”