Metabolic and Cardiovascular Responses in Older Women During Shallow-Water Exercise

Aquatic High Intensity Interval Training for Cardiometabolic Health

“…44 Previous studies of clinical populations in AE regimens and interval training swimming programs have reported significant aerobic, metabolic, musculoskeletal, CR, and psychological benefits. 1,45-62 AE performed primarily in an upright stance, is considered an adaptation of land-based physical activity (ie, walking, jogging, calisthenics, and locomotor/resistive movements) to a water medium 63 (Figure 1). Similar to land-based protocols, aquatic HIIT regimens instruct participants to complete alternating “very-hard” segments with “easy” recovery periods using an interval approach.…”

“…Although only a limited number of studies have explored the benefits of HIIT in an aquatic environment, shallow-water AE programs utilizing HIIT have reported similar and, in some cases, greater acute CR responses compared with constant-intensity or continuous AE protocols. 47,62,68,70,71,81 Using a 32-minute upper- and lower-body water HIIT routine, investigators observed greater oxygen uptake (VO 2 ), HR, and energy expenditure (EE) as compared with a continuous-intensity comparison group. 70 Similarly, researchers evaluated a shallow-water aquatic HIIT protocol that included 15-s alternating very hard/easy intervals, measuring the EE during 12 separate 3- to 5-minute CR and muscular endurance segments.…”

“…Several conditions may help explain how water-based HIIT routines can elicit greater cardiometabolic responses as compared with conventional CT protocols. These include the following: (1) as compared with deep-water exercise, shallow-water exercise elicits greater VO 2 and HR responses because of increased ground reaction forces and decreased effects of hydrostatic pressure, particularly on the lungs 68,89,91 ; (2) increased velocity of movements result in greater speeds that further increase intensity and, thus, the energy cost of movement 86,92 ; (3) engagement in vigorous full range of motion whole-body exercises that involve varied movement patterns, anatomical planes, joint angles, and muscle groups result in increased drag force, 62 frictional resistance, and work output 63,84 ; and (4) inclusion of a verbal and visual cueing system that allows participants to maximize speed needed to achieve individual overload (instead of working to a set beat of music or pace) can facilitate higher-intensity work bouts. 63,70…”

Cardiorespiratory Responses to Shallow Water Exercise: A Sex Comparison

“…Intensity during these movements may be varied by manipulating translatory speed, surface area by changing the positioning of moving body limbs and/or wearing webbed gloves, and by varying force application (Torres-Ronda & Alcazar, 2014;Wertheimer & Jukic, 2013). Several tactics have been employed by aquatic instructors and investigators to systematically control intensity including the use of a metronome to vary stride rate (Benelli, Ditriolo, & de Vito, 2004;Delavatti, Alberton, Kanitz, Marson, & Kruel, 2015;Dowzer, Reilly, Cable, & Nevill, 1999;Hoeger, Hopkins, & Barber, 1995;Kruel, Beilke, Kanitz, Alberton, Antunes, Pantoja, 2013), an underwater treadmill (Barela & Duarte, 2008;Fujishima & Shimizu, 2003;Pohl & McNaughton, 2003;Shono, Fujishima, Hotta, Ogaki, Ueda, Otoki, et al, 2000;Silvers, Rutledge, & Dolny, 2007), cadence (Aquatic Exercise Association [AEA], 2010), and self-regulated efforts based on rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and instructional cues (Kruel et al, 2009;Nagle et al, 2013;Campbell, D'Acquisto, & Renne, 2003;D'Acquisto, D'Acquisto, & Cline, 2001). Manipulating any one or a combination of these strategies during a continuous or interval SWE workout will directly impact cardiorespiratory demand (Cook et al, 2013;Torres-Ronda & Alcazar, 2014;Wertheimer & Jukic, 2013).…”

Characterization and Risk of Maximal Head-Out Aquatic Exercises

“…A literature review has revealed that physiological response to head-out aquatic exercise still need to be studied and that the exact amount of effort produced is not clear [8,9]. Physiological and training effects of water exercises have been investigated by several authors [2,3,5,6,8,[10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. Aqua fitness classes typically involve aerobic efforts, using moderate to vigorous exercises recommended to improve physical fitness [17].…”