Memory deficits and memory surfeits: Differential cognitive consequences of tokenism for tokens and observers.

Abstract

Historically, women and minority group members have been underrepresented in the professions and in better paying, high-status jobs. Even when they have been admitted to such positions, these underrepresented persons often have been the only member of their social category: a token. Previous field and laboratory research has shown that "tokens" attract disproportionate attention and are either evaluated unfairly or evaluated on the basis of their normal reactions to differential treatment by majority group members. We tested the possibilities of whether tokens might suffer more cognitive deficits than would nontokens, and whether they do so even when they are treated no differently. College students were led to believe that they were sharing their views on everyday topics with three other students (actually videotaped confederates), who were either all of the student's own sex or all of the opposite sex. In a later memory test, token participants remembered fewer of the opinions that they and the three other students had expressed than did nontokens. Observers, in contrast, remembered more of what token subjects said than what the three other students said. Theoretical and public policy implications are discussed.

Working under cover: performance‐related self‐confidence among members of contextually devalued groups who try to pass

“…These negative stereotypes and expectations can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies, resulting in low self-confidence (Biernat, Crandall, Young, Kobrynowicz, & Halpin, 1998;Cadinu, Maass, Frigerio, Impagliazzo, & Latinotti, 2003;Kray, Thompson, & Galinsky, 2001;Lord & Saenz, 1985;Schmader & Johns, 2003;Stangor, Carr, & Kiang, 1998;Steele & Aronson, 1995). Members of devalued groups can choose to break this self-fulfilling cycle by hiding their devalued group membership and passing as members of a more valued group (Goffman, 1963;Jones et al, 1984;Katz, 1981;Tajfel, 1981).…”

A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance.

“…The argument here is that for those who identify with the domain enough to experience this threat, the pressure it causes may undermine their domain performance. Disruptive pressures such as evaluation apprehension, test anxiety, choking, and token status have long been shown to disrupt performance through a variety of mediating mechanisms: interfering anxiety, reticence to respond, distracting thoughts, self-consciousness, and so on (Baumeister & Showers, 1984;Geen, 1991;Lord & Saenz, 1985;Sarason, 1980;Wine, 1971). The assumption of this model is that stereotype threat is another such interfering pressure.…”

Perceived stigma in functional somatic syndromes and comparable medical conditions

“…A concealable stigma can be as distressing as one that is readily apparent. The preoccupation with a stigma and the suppression of related thoughts lead to cognitive deficits (Lord & Saenz, 1985;Gilbert et al, 1988;Lane & Wegner, 1995) such as impaired concentration, as weIl as intrusive distressing thoughts (Wegner & Erber, 1992;Wegner et al, 1993). The attempt to keep a concealable stigma hidden from others, may even have a negative effect on health outcomes (Smart & Wegner, 2000).…”