Matrix Vesicle–Mediated Mineralization and Potential Applications

Abstract

Hard tissues, including the bones and teeth, are a fundamental part of the body, and their formation and homeostasis are critically regulated by matrix vesicle–mediated mineralization. Matrix vesicles have been studied for 50 y since they were first observed using electron microscopy. However, research progress has been hampered by various technical barriers. Recently, there have been great advancements in our understanding of the intracellular biosynthesis of matrix vesicles. Mitochondria and lysosomes are now considered key players in matrix vesicle formation. The involvement of mitophagy, mitochondrial-derived vesicles, and mitochondria–lysosome interaction have been suggested as potential detailed mechanisms of the intracellular pathway of matrix vesicles. Their main secretion pathway may be exocytosis, in addition to the traditionally understood mechanism of budding from the outer plasma membrane. This basic knowledge of matrix vesicles should be strengthened by novel nano-level microscopic technologies, together with basic cell biologies, such as autophagy and interorganelle interactions. In the field of tissue regeneration, extracellular vesicles such as exosomes are gaining interest as promising tools in cell-free bone and periodontal regenerative therapy. Matrix vesicles, which are recognized as a special type of extracellular vesicles, could be another potential alternative. In this review, we outline the recent significant progress in the process of matrix vesicle–mediated mineralization and the potential clinical applications of matrix vesicles for tissue regeneration.

The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in periodontitis: From mechanisms to therapeutic strategy

“…98 Pei et al 99 Therefore, mitochondrial-derived vesicles are expected to emerge as a significant area of interest for bone regeneration and repair in the future. 100,101 Consequently, drugs targeting mitochondrial dysfunction may serve as novel adjuncts to periodontitis treatment since they have been proven to have the ability to protect against periodontitismediated injury and inflammation activation. And the biomineralization and osteogenesis mediated by mitochondria provide a new direction for bone repair and regeneration in periodontitis.…”

“…MVs formation is now recognized to rely on the crucial involvement of both mitochondria and lysosomes. Therefore, mitochondrial‐derived vesicles are expected to emerge as a significant area of interest for bone regeneration and repair in the future 100,101 …”

The Applications and Potentials of Extracellular Vesicles from Different Cell Sources in Periodontal Regeneration

“…The latest research progress and potential application values of CEVs, BEVs and PEVs in periodontal regeneration are comprehensively expounded and discussed ( Figure 1 ). In addition to CEVs, BEVs, and PEVs, some other EVs subtypes such as apoptotic cell-derived EVs (ApoEVs) and matrix vesicles (MVs) were also demonstrated to play positive roles in promoting osteogenesis, mineralization, and periodontal regeneration [ 193 , 194 ]. Moreover, the specific mechanisms of EV biogenesis, the development of EV-friendly scaffold materials, the synergistic function of EVs as a carrier to deliver genes and drugs, the transformation of waste into treasure (EVs in feces and urine), and the applications of engineered EVs are also the directions for further research in the field of periodontal regeneration.…”

Vascular calcification: from the perspective of crosstalk

“…Physiological calcification occurs in the normal physiological process of bone and tooth [ 90 ]. During the initial stages of mineralization of hard tissues such as bone, cartilage and dentin, hard tissue forming cells secrete matrix vesicles to function [ 91 , 92 ]. For example, bone matrix vesicles are released during bone formation and development by microvilli sprouting at the tip of osteoblasts and participate in the initiation of mineralization by adjusting the ratio of pyrophosphate to phosphate, providing sites for hydroxyapatite crystal nucleation and interacting with extracellular matrix to promote the formation of hydroxyapatite in its cavity [ 92 – 94 ].…”