Malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.) infecting introduced, native and endemic New Zealand birds

Abstract

Avian malaria is caused by intracellular mosquito-transmitted protist parasites in the order Haemosporida, genus Plasmodium. Although Plasmodium species have been diagnosed as causing death in several threatened species in New Zealand, little is known about their ecology and epidemiology. In this study, we examined the presence, microscopic characterization and sequence homology of Plasmodium spp. isolates collected from a small number of New Zealand introduced, native and endemic bird species. We identified 14 Plasmodium spp. isolates from 90 blood or tissue samples. The host range included four species of passerines (two endemic, one native, one introduced), one species of endemic pigeon and two species of endemic kiwi. The isolates were associated into at least four distinct clusters including Plasmodium (Huffia) elongatum, a subgroup of Plasmodium elongatum, Plasmodium relictum and Plasmodium (Noyvella) spp. The infected birds presented a low level of peripheral parasitemia consistent with chronic infection (11/15 blood smears examined). In addition, we report death due to overwhelming parasitemia in a blackbird, a great spotted kiwi and a hihi. These deaths were attributed to infections with either Plasmodium spp. lineage LINN1 or P. relictum lineage GRW4. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first published report of Plasmodium spp. infection in great spotted and brown kiwi, kereru and kokako. Currently, we are only able to speculate on the origin of these 14 isolates but consideration must be made as to the impact they may have on threatened endemic species, particularly due to the examples of mortality.

Mosquito Communities and Avian Malaria Prevalence in Silvereyes (Zosterops lateralis) Within Forest Edge and Interior Habitats in a New Zealand Regional Park

“…It was also interesting to note that the globally widespread P. elongatum was by far the most common malaria parasite encountered in silvereyes in this study (n = 20). This finding is in accordance with previous studies in New Zealand, which have demonstrated the presence of P. elongatum in a wide range of native species and its ubiquitous distribution throughout the country (Baillie and Brunton 2011;Castro et al 2011;Ewen et al 2012;Howe et al 2012).…”

“…We targeted the native silvereye (Zosterops lateralis) due to its high relative abundance and ubiquitous distribution in New Zealand (where it inhabits urban areas, forests and many offshore islands) (Diamond 1984), as well as its confirmed status as a host of avian malaria here (Howe et al 2012). Sampling was conducted in March-April (late summer-early autumn).…”

In situ hybridization and sequence analysis reveal an association of Plasmodium spp. with mortalities in wild passerine birds in Austria

“…There are only single published cases of heavily parasitized dead wild passerine birds (e.g. Turdus merula) in which the Plasmodium infection has been considered to be the cause of death (Howe et al 2012). This fact may have been overlooked, because most studies on haemosporidia in their passerine hosts have been done in blood smears of obviously healthy mist netcaught birds.…”

A Review of Plasmodium coatneyi–Macaque Models of Severe Malaria

“…42,63,90 Unique plasmodium-vertebrate interactions continue to be discovered in reptiles and birds. 38,45,49,85,87,120 The earliest genetic evidence of a malaria plasmodium, dated at approximately 30 million years ago, was obtained through the extraction of DNA from mosquitoes fossilized in amber from the Paleogene period. 88 The Old World primate plasmodia themselves are polyphyletic and subdivide into 2 major groups.…”