Longitudinal and concurrent links between memory span, anxiety symptoms, and subsequent executive functioning in young children

Abstract

It has been conjectured that basic individual differences in attentional control influence higher-level executive functioning and subsequent academic performance in children. The current study sets out to complement the limited body of research on early precursors of executive functions (EFs). It provides both a cross-sectional, as well as a longitudinal exploration of the relationship between EF and more basic attentional control mechanisms, assessed via children's performance on memory storage tasks, and influenced by individual differences in anxiety. Multiple measures of verbal and visuospatial short-term memory (STM) were administered to children between 3 and 6 years old, alongside a non-verbal measure of intelligence, and a parental report of anxiety symptoms. After 9 months, children were re-tested on the same STM measures, at which time we also administered multiple measures of executive functioning: verbal and visuospatial working memory (WM), inhibition, and shifting. A cross-sectional view of STM development indicated that between 3 and 6 years the trajectory of visuospatial STM and EF underwent a gradual linear improvement. However, between 5 and 6 years progress in verbal STM performance stagnated. Hierarchical regression models revealed that trait anxiety was negatively associated with WM and shifting, while non-verbal intelligence was positively related to WM span. When age, gender, non-verbal intelligence, and anxiety were controlled for, STM (measured at the first assessment) was a very good predictor of overall executive performance. The models were most successful in predicting WM, followed by shifting, yet poorly predicted inhibition measures. Further longitudinal research is needed to directly address the contribution of attentional control mechanisms to emerging executive functioning and to the development of problematic behavior during early development.

Illness Perception in Adolescent Patients With Anorexia: Does It Play a Role in socio-Emotional and Academic Adjustment?

“…Illness identity or the tendency to attribute symptoms to AN was associated with academic adjustment, since these symptoms can become a signal to patients that their AN is active or progressing, leading to anxiety (Leventhal et al, 2003). Literature has shown that high levels of anxiety reduce learning efficiency by decreasing attention, concentration and retention, with the consequent deterioration in school performance (Van Ameringen et al, 2003;Visu-Petra et al, 2014;Respondek et al, 2017). For this reason, it is very important to treat anxiety that comes from identifying symptoms because decreased school performance negatively affects marks as well as adolescent students' self-esteem (Nguyen et al, 2019).…”

Assessing Executive Functions in Preschoolers Using Shape School Task

“…The third limitation refers to the transversal nature of the study. Longitudinal studies provide information on the progressive development of EF during the preschool ears ( Hughes and Ensor, 2011 ; Visu-Petra et al, 2015 ), hence, longitudinal analysis of the specific components of EF (simple and complex forms of EF) from 3 to 6 years, could further the research significantly. For example, the study by Garon et al (2014) suggest that inhibition and WM have different developmental trajectories in the preschool age.…”

Parent ratings of executive function in young preschool children with symptoms of attention-deficit/-hyperactivity disorder

“…EF difficulties have also been described in children with internalizing problems, such as anxiety. Links between anxiety and reduced mental flexibility (shifting) have been demonstrated both in preschool- and school-aged samples [ 31 , 32 ]. According to process efficiency theory, anxiety problems are likely to put a strain on information processing and storage in WM [ 33 , 34 ].…”

“…According to process efficiency theory, anxiety problems are likely to put a strain on information processing and storage in WM [ 33 , 34 ]. Research addressing WM in anxious children has, however, reported mixed findings; with an association described by some [ 31 , 35 , 36 ] but not others [ 32 , 37 ].…”