Loneliness in Older Migrants: Exploring the Role of Cultural Differences in Their Loneliness Experience

Abstract

Introduction and background: The scientific literature suggests the necessity of studying loneliness from a broader social perspective. This article aims to broaden the research on loneliness in older migrants by exploring the role of cultural differences through the lens of the social environment (as measured in social capital, discrimination, and ageism) and social situation (as measured in relational mobility, childness, and marital status). Based on Hofstede’s Individualism Index, older migrants involved in the BBC Loneliness Experiment (N = 2164) were classified into three groups: cultural migrants (i.e., from a collectivist to individualist culture) (N = 239), migrants with a similar culture (i.e., within an individualist culture) (N = 841), and ageing non-migrants (N = 1084). Objectives: The two main objectives were 1) to compare the levels of loneliness among these three groups, and 2) to unravel how different influencing factors, such as the social environment, social situation, coping strategies, and personal characteristics, are related to loneliness. Methods: Bivariate analyses were performed to determine the differences in the loneliness, social environment, social situation, and personal characteristic variables between the groups, with adjusted p-values according to the Bonferroni correction to limit the potential for type I errors (α = 0.005). Multiple linear regressions were performed to unravel the relationships between loneliness and the different influencing factors, namely the social environment, social situation, coping strategies, and personal characteristics. Results: The bivariate analyses show no significant difference in loneliness across the three groups. The multiple linear regressions demonstrate that the social environment (i.e., social capital, discrimination, and ageism) is significantly associated with loneliness. Social capital acts as a protective factor for cultural migrants (β = −0.27, p < 0.005, 95% CI [−0.48, −0.05]), similar-culture migrants (β = −0.13, p < 0.005, 95% CI [−0.25, −0.03]), and non-migrants (β = −0.21, p < 0.001, 95% CI [−0.28, −0.12]). Discrimination and ageism are both risk factors for loneliness across the three groups. The Social situation, as measured in married/cohabitation status and relational mobility, shows a significant association with loneliness in the non-migrants and similar-culture migrants but not the cultural migrants. In terms of individual resources for coping strategies, engagement in active coping is protective for all three groups. Non-coping, the unawareness of any coping strategies, is a risk factor, while passive coping shows no significant association. Discussion: The results show that the structural factor of the social environment in which older migrants’ find themselves, rather than their culture of origin, is more important for older migrants’ feelings of loneliness in later life. A favorable social environment with high social capital and low levels of discrimination and ageism protects against loneliness in the ageing population across cultures. Practical implications for loneliness interventions for older migrants are put forward.

Risk factors for loneliness: A literature review

“…European studies looking at how migration background affects loneliness find a prevalently positive relationship; in other words, that migrants of all ages report higher levels of loneliness compared to native populations (e.g., Bayat et al, 2021 ; Buecker et al, 2021b ; Franssen et al, 2020 ; Hysing et al, 2020 ; Niedzwiedz et al, 2016 ; Pagan, 2020 ), with some exceptions ( Hutten et al, 2022 ; Marquez et al, 2022 ; Pan et al, 2023 ). However, in some studies this is true only unless other loneliness risk factors are taken into account, in which case the relationship flips sign ( Fokkema and Naderi, 2013 ; ten Kate et al, 2020 ; Visser and El Fakiri, 2016 ).…”

“…A specific issue is having (more) children, which seems to be associated with lower levels of loneliness among older adults, but this association possibly depends on sex, partner status or type of loneliness measured ( Arpino et al, 2022 ; Fokkema et al, 2012 ; Hansen and Slagsvold, 2016 ; Penning et al, 2022 ) and is not always statistically significant, especially in studies including also other age groups ( Lampraki et al, 2019 ; Lasgaard et al, 2016 ; Pan et al, 2023 ; von Soest et al, 2018 ). There is also evidence that more than the mere fact of having children, it is the relationship quality and frequency of contact with them that matter ( de Jong Gierveld et al, 2009 ; Niedzwiedz et al, 2016 ).…”

Exploring Loneliness among Korean Adults: A Concept Mapping Approach

“…Loneliness is a complex and universal emotional experience that severely affects individuals [ 75 ]. Nevertheless, few studies have examined the cultural differences in loneliness (e.g., [ 42 , 57 , 101 ]). By empirically exploring how Korean adults conceptualize loneliness, this study presents several implications.…”

Unveiling the missing pieces: Addressing research gaps in tackling loneliness among older migrants

“…There is still a taboo surrounding loneliness, and it is likely to be even more pronounced among older migrants. In collectivistic cultures, discussing personal and sensitive topics is generally considered less appropriate (Heu et al., 2019), and much emphasis is placed on maintaining strong family ties – especially between parents and children – and group harmony (Pan et al., 2023; van Staden & Coetzee, 2010). Feelings of shame and fear of losing face are also characteristic of collectivistic cultures.…”