Les temps de l'Impératif dans les ordres de l'orateur au greffier

Abstract

L'emploi constant du présent ou de l'aoriste dans les formules injonctives κάλει (τὸν δεῖνα), λαβὲ (τὴν μαρτυρίαν) et l'alternance des temps du verbe «lire» : ἀναγίγνωσκε /ἀνάγνωθι ne s'expliquent de manière satisfaisante ni par l'opposition traditionnelle entre duratif (continué) et ponctuel (inchoatif, terminal), ni par l'absence ou la présence d'une tonalité affective. Parce qu'il « ouvre une perspective sur l'action » (H. Seiler), l'impératif présent met l'accent sur son exécution et signale l'effacement du locuteur devant l'agent. Hormis un cas de neutralisation de l'aspect (λέγε), le jeu des thèmes temporels permet à l'orateur soit l'expression strictement nécessaire de l'ordre (impératif aoriste), soit la « mise en scène » de l'action prescrite (impératif présent).

Early phases of a successful invasion: mitochondrial phylogeography of the common genet (Genetta genetta) within the Mediterranean Basin

“…Several Mediterranean civilizations were designated as having possibly contributed to the introduction of the common genet in Europe; yet again concrete grounds are missing. The most elaborated scenario to date, based on Cyrenaican coinage and Heredotus' description of the Lybian fauna, suggested that the species was introduced by the Greeks from their Libyan colonies (Amigues 1999). This widens the debate to a possible spread by the first great sailors of the Mediterranean, the Phoenicians, whom were initially based in the coastal Middle East (current Lebanon and Israel).…”

“…through rafting) earlier than 110,000-170,000 years ago, and thus was not renewed later; an unlikely hypothesis given the low support from biogeographical data in the region (Dobson 1998;Cosson et al 2005), the genetic diversity detected in Europe (lower than in northern Algeria, but not diagnostic of a strong founder event), the presence of common genets in Balearic Isl., and the genetic evidence for multiple introductions (see below). We would thus opt for recent events of introduction conditioned by cultural constraint, although this scenario still suffers from a lack of archaeozoological evidence relative to the possible use of the common genet against pests in the Mediterranean Basin (Kingdon 1977;Amigues 1999). Interestingly, an example of a culturally dependant introduction was recently reported for the Algerian hedgehog Atelerix algirus, which was introduced by the Almohads from Morocco to the Mediterranean islands and the coastal Iberian Peninsula for meat consumption and medicine (Morales and Rofes 2008).…”

“…Additional samples are needed, notably from former Cyrenaica (Greek Lybian colonies), to assess whether the persistence of Clade 3-2 in Andalucia, near the ancient Tartessian kingdom's boundaries, is the signature of the introduction of common genets by Greeks during the 6th century B.C. (Amigues 1999). However, the presence of the species in contemporaneous Lybia (Ufnagl 1972) requires an urgent re-assessment.…”

“…This long stood as the main evidence supporting the hypothesis of an introduction of the species through Moor conquerors, together with the dating of the only known archaeological remains of common genets in Europe to the early 13th century Almohad levels in Portugal (Morales 1994). Gsell (1913), and later Amigues (1999), proposed an alternative scenario based on mentions by antique Greek authors of a ''weasel from Tartessos'' (south-western Iberian Peninsula), suggesting that the common genet was introduced in Europe from Greek Lybian colonies during the 6th century B.C. A third scenario was proposed by Schauenberg (1966), who argued instead for the natural presence of G. genetta in south-western Europe as a relict population from the Messinian period, despite the absence of Plio-Pleistocene remains.…”

Tracing historical introductions in the Mediterranean Basin: the success story of the common genet (Genetta genetta) in Europe

“…The introduction of the species has traditionally been associated to the Muslim invasion of Iberia (Spain and Portugal) starting 711 A.D. (Morales 1994), although a Greek historical source suggested its presence in Europe as early as the 6th century B.C. (Amigues 1999). Recent investigations based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) reassessed these views, and suggested that the species was introduced from an endemic North African lineage into Andalusia (southern Spain), Catalonia (northwestern Spain), Mallorca and Ibiza (Balearic Isl.…”