“…Importation, in which phonetic/lexical items are directly transferred from donor to recipient language, and 2. Substitution, in which items of the donor language are reproduced indirectly using lexicon of the recipient language (Betz 1949, 1959, Haugen 1950, 1969, Duckworth 1977. Substitutions in Chinese-Japanese contact can be further broken down into loan grammar, in which Japanese grammar and syntax is influenced by Chinese, loan coinages, in which new words are formed based on Chinese models, and loan meanings, in which the sense of a word is expanded or constricted to match a Chinese model.…”