Ketamine Addiction

KAMAYA, HIROSHI; KRISHNA, P. R.

doi:10.1097/00000542-198711000-00054

Cited by 47 publications

(15 citation statements)

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“…However, KT has also been abused as a recreational drug administered via intravenous injection (10,27), intramuscular injection (10,11,26), nasal inhalation of powder (8,26), and the ingestion of tablets (8,(28)(29)(30). The reported symptoms in KT abusers include hallucinations (8)(9)(10)(11)(12), drug dependency (10-12), flashbacks (9, 10), tolerance (10)(11)(12), and anxiety (9). Tablets seized by the police tend to contain KT alone or are adulterated with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methamphetamine (MA), and ephedrine (EP) (30)(31)(32).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Ketamine ((±)-2-methylamino-2-(2-chlorophenyl)cyclohexanone) hydrochloride (KT), used as an intravenous or intramuscular anesthetic, is a secondary amine. However, KT in the tablet form has recently become an abused, recreational drug (8)(9)(10)(11)(12). We are concerned about the gastric production of N-nitrosoketamine (NKT) and its genotoxicity in persons who abuse KT in the tablet form.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Genotoxic effects of N-nitrosoketamine and ketamine as assessed by in vitro micronucleus test in Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cell line

Toyama

Shimizu

Suzuki

et al. 2006

Environ. Health Prev. Med.

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Objectives: Ketamine hydrochloride (KT) is a secondary amine that has been safely used as an injectable anesthetic and analgesic to avoid the production of nitroso compounds in the stomach. However, ketamine in the tablet form has recently become an abused, recreational drug. The aim of this study was to investigate the genotoxic effects of N-nitrosoketamine (NKT) and KT on the basis of an in vitro micronucleus (MN) test using a Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cell line (CHL/IU).Methods: NKT was synthesized from KT in our laboratory. In the MN tests, CHL/IU cells were continuously treated with either NKT or KT for 24, 48, or 72 hours without the S9 mix. The cells were also treated with NKT or KT with or without the S9 mix for 6 hours, followed by a recovery period of 18, 42, or 66 hours (short-term treatment). The results were considered to be statistically significant when the p-values of both Fisher's exact test and the trend test were less than 0.05.Results: After the short-term treatment with either NKT or KT with and without the S9 mix, the frequency of micronuclei significantly increased. However, the frequency of micronuclei did not significantly increase after the continuous treatment with either NKT or KT. Both NKT and KT were determined to be genotoxic in the short-term treatment with or without the S9 mix, but they were determined to be nongenotoxic in continuous treatment.Conclusion: Our findings suggest that NKT has a stronger genotoxic effect than KT.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Genotoxic effects of N-nitrosoketamine and ketamine as assessed by in vitro micronucleus test in Chinese hamster lung fibroblast cell line

Toyama

Shimizu

Suzuki

et al. 2006

Environ. Health Prev. Med.

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“…Tolerance Tolerance develops rapidly to the desired effects (Kamaya and Krishna 1987), resulting in reduced length of the subjective experience and requiring an increase in dose to maintain the expected effects. Users escalate the amount used to achieve the full hallucinogenic experience, up to seven times the original amount (Meutzelfeldt et al 2008).…”

Section: Hallucinogens Table 3 Dsm Criteria For Hallucinogen Use Dismentioning

confidence: 99%

Hallucinogens

Weaver¹

2016

Encyclopedia of Adolescence

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OverviewThere are many different types of hallucinogens, and the most popular are methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and ketamine, which are also classified as club drugs. These are used primarily by adolescents and young adults, and the prevalence of use is increasing. They produce perceptual distortions instead of true hallucinations, and they can also produce extreme anxiety, psychotic reactions, and hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. Hallucinogens are used by a variety of routes of administration and are usually not the only drugs abused by an adolescent. Serious adverse physiological effects are rare, but may include hypertension and hyperthermia. Hallucinogens can have a profound effect on adolescent development, including long-term psychiatric consequences. Screening for hallucinogen use by asking about drug use can be done in many settings. Long-term hallucinogen addiction treatment consists of behavioral components.

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“…It is a congener of phencyclidine and produces similar hallucinogenic effects.34O. 341 There have been reports of parenteral preparations being abused 341,342 and of fatalities as a result of intravenous intoxication.Y' Oral preparations are obtained by heating the parenteral anaesthetic to evaporate the water, leaving ketamine crystals. It is sold in capsule form under the street names Vitamin K, Special K and Kit-Kat.…”

Section: Smentioning

confidence: 99%