“…For example, studies had found that open-response items were more likely to be omitted than multiple-choice items, and difficult items were more likely to be omitted than easy items (Okumura, 2014;Rose et al, 2010). In item position effect studies using PISA data, the method of handling missing data is generally similar (Christiansen & Janssen, 2020;Trendtel & Robitzsch, 2018). In these studies, PISA scoring procedures were generally used, missing responses on omitted items were treated as incorrect, and all other missing responses were treated as not administered (OECD, 2009(OECD, , 2012(OECD, , 2014(OECD, , 2017.…”