Is Extreme in the Eye of the Beholder? An Experimental Assessment of Extremist Cognitions

Shortland, Neil; Nader, Elias; Thompson, Lisa; Palasinski, Marek

doi:10.1177/0886260520958645

Cited by 9 publications

(21 citation statements)

References 64 publications

Supporting

Mentioning

Contrasting

Order By: Relevance

“…Two of the experimental studies used OLS regression to analyze the data and report results (Kalmoe, 2014; Shortland et al, 2020), and another used a one‐way ANOVA (Azeem et al, 2019). Another study compared groups using t tests (Jones & Paris, 2018).…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

What are the effects of different elements of media on radicalization outcomes? A systematic review

Wolfowicz

Hasisi

Weisburd

2022

Campbell Systematic Reviews

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Background Most national counter‐radicalization strategies identify the media, and particularly the Internet as key sources of risk for radicalization. However, the magnitude of the relationships between different types of media usage and radicalization remains unknown. Additionally, whether Internet‐related risk factors do indeed have greater impacts than other forms of media remain another unknown. Overall, despite extensive research of media effects in criminology, the relationship between media and radicalization has not been systematically investigated. Objectives This systematic review and meta‐analysis sought to (1) identify and synthesize the effects of different media‐related risk factors at the individual level, (2) identify the relative magnitudes of the effect sizes for the different risk factors, and (3) compare the effects between outcomes of cognitive and behavioral radicalization. The review also sought to examine sources of heterogeneity between different radicalizing ideologies. Search Methods Electronic searches were carried out in several relevant databases and inclusion decisions were guided by a published review protocol. In addition to these searches, leading researchers were contacted to try and identify unpublished or unidentified research. Hand searches of previously published reviews and research were also used to supplement the database searches. Searches were carried out until August 2020. Selection Criteria The review included quantitative studies that examined at least one media‐related risk factor (such as exposure to, or usage of a particular medium or mediated content) and its relationship to either cognitive or behavioral radicalization at the individual level. Data Collection and Analysis Random‐effects meta‐analysis was used for each risk factor individually and risk factors were arranged in rank‐order. Heterogeneity was explored using a combination of moderator analysis, meta‐regression, and sub‐group analysis. Results The review included 4 experimental and 49 observational studies. Most of the studies were judged to be of low quality and suffer from multiple, potential sources of bias. From the included studies, effect sizes pertaining to 23 media‐related risk factors were identified and analyzed for the outcome of cognitive radicalization, and two risk factors for the outcome of behavioral radicalization. Experimental evidence demonstrated that mere exposure to media theorized to increase cognitive radicalization was associated with a small increase in risk (g = 0.08, 95% confidence interval [CI] [−0.03, 19]). A slightly larger estimate was observed for those high in trait aggression (g = 0.13, 95% CI [0.01, 0.25]). Evidence from observational studies shows that for cognitive radicalization, risk factors such as television usage have no effect (r = 0.01, 95% CI [−0.06, 0.09]). However, passive (r = 0.24, 95% CI [0.18, 0.31]) and active (r = 0.22, 95% CI [0.15, 0.29]) forms of exposure to radical content online demonstrate small but potentially meaningful relationsh...

show abstract

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

What are the effects of different elements of media on radicalization outcomes? A systematic review

Wolfowicz

Hasisi

Weisburd

2022

Campbell Systematic Reviews

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

“…Research on exposure to violent media (Anderson & Bushman, 2002), and preliminary work on the effect of exposure to online violent extremist content (Shortland et al, 2017, 2020) has shown that the personality of the individual plays an important role in the ability of online violent extremist content to cause any ensuing cognitive or behavioral change (Gill & Corner, 2017). In support of this perspective, this study found support for Hypothesis 4, in the relationship between positive response rate (i.e., the degree to which they viewed violent extremist content online positively) and post-activism and radicalism intentions scores was moderated by the participant’s total BAS score.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Furthermore, while we know that exposure to violent content increases aggression, it is moderated by personality. With reference to the effect of violent extremist content online, we can similarly adopt an interactionalist perspective, as early work on the effect of exposure to violent extremist content online has shown that while exposure to extremist content can increase levels of aggression, personality plays an important role in the relationship (Shortland et al, 2020). For example, Shortland et al (2017) found that contrary to their predictions, exposure to violent extremist content actually decreased levels of exhibited aggression.…”

Section: The Personality Puzzlementioning

confidence: 99%

“…That said, for the purposes of this study, radicalization is defined as the process of supporting or engaging in activities deemed (by others) as violation of important social norms (e.g., the killing of civilians; Kruglanski et al, 2014). In addition to focusing on the social, societal, and political influences on radicalization (see Horgan, 2017; Shortland, 2020, for reviews) psychologists have begun to focus on the potential role of exposure to extremist-related content (Shortland et al, 2020).…”

Section: The Personality Puzzlementioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

The personality and propaganda puzzle: Exploring the effect of personality on exposure to extremist content online.

Shortland¹,

McGarry²

2022

Psychology of Violence

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Objective: This paper applies Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory to explain the role of exposure to violent extremist content online in the wider psychological process of "radicalization." Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory is a suitable theory to apply to this domain given that (a) the motivation to engage in violent extremism is widely discussed, yet motivational theories are rarely applied and (b) current risk factors for engagement in violent extremist behavior show a high degree of overlap with core Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory variables (e.g., impulsivity and social dominance). Method: This study uses an experimental design in which 479 participants from Amazon's Mechanical Turk were randomly assigned one of two short vignettes (violent extremist/violent nonextremist) to frame the content of a social mediabased behavioral task. The effect of exposure to violent extremist content online on intentions for political mobilization was measured via the Activism and Radicalism Intentions Scale. Results: While exposure to online violent extremist content did not increase tendencies for political mobilization, Behavioral Activation System traits were positively associated with the willingness to engage with violent extremist content online and with intentions for political mobilization. Conclusions: Behavioral Activation System traits provide a possible avenue to explain individual differences in the process of radicalization and the potential relevance of Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory for theories of radicalization provides further evidence that new knowledge that can be gleaned by applying established psychological theories to the study of radicalization.

show abstract

“…Furthermore, many people end up at a state of “being radicalized” but come from a range of diverse exposures to violent extremist content online ( Horgan J. et al, 2016 ; Horgan J. G. et al, 2016 ). Despite this, a range of experimental research has shown that the effect of exposure to violent extremist content online depends on the personality of the viewer ( Shortland et al, 2017 , 2020 ). These issues, coupled with the widely espoused view that personality is critical to the radicalization process (e.g., McGregor et al, 2015 ), supports the need for explanations for the role of violent extremist content to (at least partly) focus on the role that individual differences in personality play on core motivations to engage in violent extremist action.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

A Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Violent Extremist Propaganda: The Motivational Pathways Underlying Movement Toward and Away From Violent Extremist Action

et al. 2022

Self Cite

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

Anecdotal evidence supports than engaging with violent extremist content online facilitates the radicalization process. However, there is a consistent lack of empirically grounded research to provide insight into the psychological process through which this influence occurs (if at all). As such, most theories often fail to accommodate both the multifinality (the concept that many people are exposed to violent extremist material, yet never engage in violent extremism), and equifinality (the concept that people can view a range violent extremist content, yet all end up engaging in violent extremism) that naturally is observed in those who engage with violent extremist content online and those who engage in violent extremist behavior. This paper presents Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) as a theoretical framework to inform understanding of the process that governs the interaction between violent extremist material online and engaging with violent extremism. RST is a motivational theory which has been applied to a range of benevolent and deviant behaviors. Specifically, we argue that RST is suitable to explain the effect of violent extremist content online because (1) it outlines multiple differentiated motivational pathways that can account for multifinality and equifinality observed in those who engage in violent extremist behavior and (2) the extant neurological and psychophysiological research using RST provides a empirically supported framework for developing both research methods and verifiable hypotheses to advance our understanding of how, if at all, violent extremist content online contributes to the process of radicalization.

show abstract

Is Extreme in the Eye of the Beholder? An Experimental Assessment of Extremist Cognitions

Cited by 9 publications

References 64 publications

What are the effects of different elements of media on radicalization outcomes? A systematic review

What are the effects of different elements of media on radicalization outcomes? A systematic review

The personality and propaganda puzzle: Exploring the effect of personality on exposure to extremist content online.

A Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Violent Extremist Propaganda: The Motivational Pathways Underlying Movement Toward and Away From Violent Extremist Action

Contact Info

Product

Resources

About