Introduction: Policy-making, Learning and Devolution

Abstract

This collection explores the idea that devolution in European states can provide 'laboratories of democracy' as states experiment in different ways to address social and economic problems and engage their citizens. While there is a substantial literature on policy diffusion and learning among US states, and on transfer and learning between countries, there is not much on learning among European federated and devolved governments. This collection fills that gap with a series of studies based primarily on experiences in Germany, Spain and the UK (including a particular focus on Northern Ireland). The introduction sets up the analytical framework, discussing the concepts of learning and transfer, the direction of transfer (for example, from the centre to the devolved territory), the mechanisms involved (from voluntary to coercive) and the degree of transfer. Policy-Making, Learning, Policy Diffusion and DevolutionFederalism has famously been described as providing laboratories of democracy as states experiment in different ways to address social and economic problems and engage their citizens. Devolution in European states has similarly been hailed as an opportunity to try out new solutions, adapting them to local circumstances and, if they are successful, applying them elsewhere. Yet actually benefitting from the experiences of others and adopting successful innovations is an extremely difficult matter. It implies a capacity to make policy at the devolved level, and mechanisms to transfer or diffuse the innovation, whether this is by more or less compulsory conformity, by policy competition or by policy transfer and lesson drawing from experiences in different places. While there is a substantial literature on policy diffusion and learning among states, there is not much on learning among federated and devolved governments, whether within individual states or on a wider international or European basis. This collection addresses that question through a series of studies based in different systems.i Policy transfer and learning in federal and devolved systems can be particularly difficult to identify since there are many reasons why one government might adopt policies similar to those being carried out elsewhere, not all of which are to do with improving policy performance. Convergence, like divergence, might not even be the result of conscious decisions by policy-makers. In order to locate the role of policy transfer and learning, therefore, we first need to explore patterns of convergence and divergence and their drivers within multilevel systems. Divergence and Convergence in Multilevel SystemsFederalism and devolution are mechanisms both for dividing and for sharing power. They are equally ways of dividing and sharing policy-making, creating new dynamics and posing challenges for our understanding of the policy process. Multilevel policy-making might lead to divergence within states, to convergence around negotiated solutions, or to complex patterns of differentiation, cooperation and learning.Classical ...

Policy Learning: Equality and Human Rights in Northern Ireland, Ireland and Great Britain

“…In addition, there was a contribution from the United States (US), notably Senator George Mitchell's chairing of the talks. But, as shown below, other actors in the wider policy community, discussed by Keating and Cairney (2012) and Dolowitz and Marsh (1996), played key roles in clothing the policy bones of the constitutional skeleton.…”

“…In conclusion, it is suggested that it is not only because of the banking, fiscal and economic crises in Ireland and the UK that learning opportunities have been undermined. This case study demonstrates the importance of the contrast between politicians with their "limited attention spans" (Keating and Cairney, 2012) and the more analytical wider policy community of professionals and interest groups. Power relations between them are a significant factor in degrees of superficiality or profundity.…”

“…According to the former, emulation is a rejection of "copying in every detail but acceptance that a particular program [may provide] the best standard for designing legislation at home'. Keating and Cairney (2012) note that co-operation among regional and federated governments has given way, to some degree, to competition. Motivations for the policy learning discussed here fall into the co-operative category and, therefore, should not fall prey to the 'race to the bottom' that is inherent in the logic of some accounts of competitive federalism.…”

“…I use these terms rather than policy transfer because there is no simple 'borrowing' in this area. Policy emulation more or less as used by Dolowitz and Marsh (1996), rather than in the context of coercive transfer (Keating and Cairney, 2012), is another possible way of exploring what has been happening. According to the former, emulation is a rejection of "copying in every detail but acceptance that a particular program [may provide] the best standard for designing legislation at home'.…”

The ‘filling in’ of community‐based planning in the devolved UK?

“…In practice, the devolved UK has an asymmetrical constitution in that the new territorial institutions were granted substantially different powers and responsibilities (Keating and Cairney ). This resulted in re‐balancing central and regional autonomies, as demonstrated by the delineation of reserved powers (Westminster) and variegated devolved powers to the nation‐regions of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.…”