Intestinal Population in Host with Metabolic Syndrome during Administration of Chitosan and Its Derivatives

Abstract

Chitosan and its derivatives can alleviate metabolic syndrome by different regulation mechanisms, phosphorylation of AMPK (AMP-activated kinase) and Akt (also known as protein kinase B), suppression of PPAR-γ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ) and SREBP-1c (sterol regulatory element–binding proteins), and translocation of GLUT4 (glucose transporter-4), and also the downregulation of fatty-acid-transport proteins, fatty-acid-binding proteins, fatty acid synthetase (FAS), acetyl-CoA carboxylase (acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase), and HMG-CoA reductase (hydroxy methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase). The improved microbial profiles in the gastrointestinal tract were positively correlated with the improved glucose and lipid profiles in hosts with metabolic syndrome. Hence, this review will summarize the current literature illustrating positive correlations between the alleviated conditions in metabolic syndrome hosts and the normalized gut microbiota in hosts with metabolic syndrome after treatment with chitosan and its derivatives, implying that the possibility of chitosan and its derivatives to serve as therapeutic application will be consolidated. Chitosan has been shown to modulate cardiometabolic symptoms (e.g., lipid and glycemic levels, blood pressure) as well as gut microbiota. However, the literature that summarizes the relationship between such metabolic modulation of chitosan and prebiotic-like effects is limited. This review will discuss the connection among their structures, biological properties, and prebiotic effects for the treatment of metabolic syndrome. Our hope is that future researchers will consider the prebiotic effects as significant contributors to the mitigation of metabolic syndrome.

Antimicrobial Properties of Chitosan and Chitosan Derivatives in the Treatment of Enteric Infections

“…The inner mucus layer can separate the intestinal epithelia and microbes in the GI tract, preventing bacterial translocation and subsequent systemic inflammation [ 215 ]. The upregulated mucins mediated by SCFAs from the healthy gut microbiota can supply energy for specific beneficial mucin-degrading bacteria (e.g., Akkermansia muciniphila ), resulting in expanded microbiota outer mucus layer [ 11 , 215 ]. In summary, the mucus layer serves as the first barrier of defense against exogenous pathogens.…”

“…Chitin is a biocompatible and biodegradable polysaccharide extracted from crustaceans, fungi, and insects [ 11 ]. Chitin can be converted into its deacetylated derivative, chitosan [ 1 ].…”

“…Chitosan can serve as prebiotics to increase the colonic mucosal populations of beneficial bacteria and decrease proinflammatory bacteria, improving imbalanced gut microbiota and mucosal inflammation [ 28 ]. Also, it gained widespread popularity as a dietary supplement due to the lipid-lowering effects and anti-diabetic properties in the absence of adverse reactions [ 11 ]. Besides, healthy gut microbiota can occupy binding sites in the mucus layer covering enterocytes and prevent pathogens from colonizing the human intestine [ 29 ].…”

The Anti-inflammatory Effect of Chitosan Oligosaccharide on Heart Failure in Mice

“…Furthermore, COS can be easily absorbed through intestinal epithelium and quickly enters systemic circulation. It is shown that COS can enhance the phagocytic activity of macrophages by a mechanism related to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, which induces nitric oxide synthase (i-NOS) [ 14 – 16 ]. Several studies have demonstrated protective effects of COS on damaged cardiomyocytes.…”

Biodegradable Polymers and Polymer Composites with Antibacterial Properties

“…The main sources of chitin are crustaceans such as shrimp, crabs, and lobster. The chemical structure of chitin is similar to that of cellulose, having a hydroxyl group in each monomer substituted with an acetylamine group [ 17 , 60 , 61 ].…”