“…The components in the particulate phase can directly or indirectly damage lipids, proteins, the intracellular matrix, DNA, and organelles, thereby resulting in many diseases. There is increasing evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies that cigarette smoke extract (CSE) treatment can stimulate release and expression of inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1alpha (Pauwels et al, 2011;Yang et al, 2014), IL-6 (Locati et al, 2001;Chen et al, 2012;Wang et al, 2015), IL-8 (Zhang et al, 2011;Wu et al, 2014), IL-17 (Zhang et al, 2011;Bozinovski et al, 2015) and IL-18 (Kang et al, 2007), and cause airway inflammation (Tamimi et al, 2012), lung inflammation (Tang et al, 2011;Izzotti and Pulliero, 2015), COPD (Zhang et al, 2011;Seys et al, 2015), emphysema (Xiong et al, 2011) and carcinogenesis (Chen et al, 2011a;Sobus and Warren, 2014).…”