Innate and Adaptive Immunopathogeneses in Viral Hepatitis; Crucial Determinants of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Abstract

Viral hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) infections remain the most common risk factors for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), and their heterogeneous distribution influences the global prevalence of this common type of liver cancer. Typical hepatitis infection elicits various immune responses within the liver microenvironment, and viral persistence induces chronic liver inflammation and carcinogenesis. HBV is directly mutagenic but can also cause low-grade liver inflammation characterized by episodes of intermittent high-grade liver inflammation, liver fibrosis, and cirrhosis, which can progress to decompensated liver disease and HCC. Equally, the absence of key innate and adaptive immune responses in chronic HCV infection dampens viral eradication and induces an exhausted and immunosuppressive liver niche that favors HCC development and progression. The objectives of this review are to (i) discuss the epidemiological pattern of HBV and HCV infections, (ii) understand the host immune response to acute and chronic viral hepatitis, and (iii) explore the link between this diseased immune environment and the development and progression of HCC in preclinical models and HCC patients.

Role of hepatitis c virus in hepatocellular carcinoma and neurological disorders: an overview

“…HCV bypasses humoral immunity through many alternative pathways. The viral persistence and emergence of host humoral immunity occur due to the presence of viral quasi-species, cell-to-cell transmission of HCV, the interaction of HCV-GAGs with HDL and SCARB1 receptors, and distinct glycans on E2 proteins (1).…”

“…The release of CCL5 by macrophages was also observed after co-culture with HCV-infected hepatocytes. They further activate the high-level expression of fibrogenic and inflammatory markers, which leads to liver fibrosis (1,42).…”

“…Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an RNA virus responsible for liver inflammation and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). HCV has six main genotypes and four of them are the most common in low-income countries, while genotype 1 is the most common in middle-and high-income countries (1). The virus causes both acute and chronic hepatitis, including liver cirrhosis and the development of cancer.…”

“…Currently, no vaccines are available against HCV, but antiviral therapy and direct-acting antivirals (DAAs) are being used to cure HCV-infected patients. The highest prevalence of HCV has been observed in many countries, including Cameroon, Egypt, Gabon, Georgia, Mongolia, Nigeria, and Uzbekistan, with a history of "iatrogenic" infections, which is a major risk factor (1).…”

A New EGFR Inhibitor from Ficus benghalensis Exerted Potential Anti-Inflammatory Activity via Akt/PI3K Pathway Inhibition

“…However, when the triggering factors are not contained, inflammation can be associated with a dysregulation of the normal physiological processes, and the escalated response can cause serious chronic inflammatory disorders [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Inflammation can contribute to the pathogenesis of arthritis, stroke, cancer, neurodegenerative, and cardiovascular diseases [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Prostaglandins (PGs) are key regulators in the generation of the inflammatory response.…”