“…Indeed, studies employing animal models of rTMS (both in vitro and in vivo ) disclose that rTMS is capable of inducing long-lasting changes of glutamatergic neurotransmission onto principal neurons (Levkovitz et al, 1999; Tokay et al, 2009; Gersner et al, 2011; Ghiglieri et al, 2012; Vlachos et al, 2012; Ma et al, 2013; Sykes et al, 2013; Volz et al, 2013; Lenz et al, 2015; Tang et al, 2015). Seemingly consistent with these observations, it was shown for example that rTMS modulates tactile learning performance in healthy animals (Mix et al, 2010), improves spatial learning in experimental vascular dementia (Wang et al, 2015), and promotes motor learning after stroke in humans in some situations (Brodie et al, 2014). However, it remains unclear how rTMS-induced associative plasticity, i.e., LTP or LTD of excitatory synapses, which is induced by trains of external electromagnetic pulses that are not task- or input-specific, can exert positive effects on motor and cognitive function under physiological and pathological conditions (see also Ridding and Rothwell, 2007).…”