Implicit black‐weapon associations weakened over time in increasingly multiethnic metropolitan areas

Abstract

A repeated cross‐sectional design was used to examine whether temporal changes in implicit Black‐weapon associations were dependent on the changing ethnic diversity of metropolitan areas over the course of a decade (2009–2018). Data on implicit Black‐weapon associations were obtained from Project Implicit. Three indicators of ethnic diversity were calculated using American Community Survey data. Minority representation referred to the proportion of African American residents. Variety was operationalized as the degree to which six ethnic groups each accounted for an equal proportion of the population. Integration assessed the degree to which ethnic groups were evenly distributed across census tracts making up the metropolitan area. Multilevel model analyses (N = 345,647 participants, nested within 185 metropolitan areas) revealed that implicit Black‐weapon associations weakened over time, and to a larger degree in metropolitan areas characterized by steeper increases in variety. This longitudinal relationship is consistent with the notion that, as metropolitan areas become more multiethnic, implicit associations between crime, danger, or violence and Black Americans decline.

Implicit Racial and Gender Bias About Handguns: A New Implicit Association Test

“…Our findings establish a significant anti-Black implicit bias about women and handguns among US adults, and these findings demonstrate that US adults perceive women to be less competent with handguns, especially relative to Black or White men. These findings of anti-Black bias about women and handguns are consistent with prior evidence of anti-Black bias associating Black men with danger and weapons (Johnson & Chopik, 2019; Nosek et al, 2007; Sadler & Devos, 2020; Somo et al, 2020). Furthermore, US adults inaccurately assessed safety risks facing Black women, especially IPV and sexual violence.…”

“…IAT D scores greater than −0.15 and lesser than 0.15 indicate no measurable racial bias (Nosek et al, 2007), 0.15 to 0.34 slight anti-Black bias, 0.35 to 0.64 moderate anti-Black bias, and ≥0.65 strong anti-Black bias consistent with conventional criteria for small, medium, and large effect sizes of Cohen’s d measure (Cohen, 1988; Greenwald et al, 2003). This anti-Black implicit bias is stereotype consistent with racist perceptions about Black people, criminality, and violence (Johnson & Chopik, 2019; Nosek et al, 2007; Sadler & Devos, 2020; Somo et al, 2020). All participants were also asked whether they had ever taken an IAT.…”

“…Results from a meta-analysis established a test–retest reliability of r = .50 from 50 IAT studies and an internal consistency of α = .80 from 257 IAT studies (Greenwald et al, 2022; Greenwald & Lai, 2020). We developed a novel Race–Women–Handguns Implicit Association Test (RWH-IAT) that is similar to validated IATs (Johnson & Chopik, 2019; Nosek et al, 2007; Sadler & Devos, 2020; Somo et al, 2020). We utilized validated facial stimuli for the groups of women from the Chicago Face Database (CFD; Ma et al, 2015), publicly available handgun photos from the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF, 2021), and stock photos of smartphones from Pexels (2021).…”

“…In addition, racist ideas about criminality and violence have been woven into the fabric of Western societies. Studies persistently document racist perceptions about weapons and safety in the United States (Johnson & Chopik, 2019; Nosek et al, 2007; Sadler & Devos, 2020; Somo et al, 2020). Data on two existing IATs (Race–Safety IAT and Race–Weapons IAT) show associations between Black and danger / White and safety on the Race–Safety IAT and Black and weapons / White and harmless objects on the Race–Weapons IAT (Johnson & Chopik, 2019; Nosek et al, 2007; Sadler & Devos, 2020; Somo et al, 2020).…”

“…Studies persistently document racist perceptions about weapons and safety in the United States (Johnson & Chopik, 2019; Nosek et al, 2007; Sadler & Devos, 2020; Somo et al, 2020). Data on two existing IATs (Race–Safety IAT and Race–Weapons IAT) show associations between Black and danger / White and safety on the Race–Safety IAT and Black and weapons / White and harmless objects on the Race–Weapons IAT (Johnson & Chopik, 2019; Nosek et al, 2007; Sadler & Devos, 2020; Somo et al, 2020). Prior studies employ IATs to measure unconscious or implicit racial bias about weapons, but to our knowledge all these studies have focused on racial bias about men and have used a variety of weapons (e.g., gun, knife, and bat).…”