Impact of ventilation on the fire dynamics of an open‐plan compartment with exposed timber ceiling and columns: <i>CodeRed #02</i>

Kotsovinos, Panagiotis; Christensen, Eirik G.; Rackauskaite, Egle; Glew, Adam; O’Loughlin, Eoin; Mitchell, Harry; Amin, Rikesh; Robert, Femi; Heidari, Mohammad; Barber, David; Rein, Guillermo; Schulz, Judith

doi:10.1002/fam.3082

Cited by 12 publications

(34 citation statements)

References 20 publications

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“…In turn, this likely provided sufficient heat to reignite the timber after the brief cessation of CLT flaming. This emphasizes the dependence of timber ceilings on the energy released from the movable fuel as also noted in both CodeRed #01 and CodeRed #02 , 7 where the CLT was observed to stop flaming soon after the crib flames no longer impinged on the ceiling. Once the CLT ceiling was reignited, the flames spread rapidly across the length of the compartment reaching the far end at 28 min 13 s (4 min 21 s after the first ignition).…”

Section: Experiments Resultssupporting

confidence: 57%

“…The facility and fuel load used for CodeRed #01 were based on the design of a previous non‐combustible building for direct comparison 6 . The second experiment in the series, CodeRed #02 , considered the impact of reduced ventilation on fire dynamics 7 . The third experiment, CodeRed #03 , investigated the effectiveness of water mist as a suppression system in an open‐plan compartment with a timber ceiling 8 …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Impact of partial encapsulation on the fire dynamics of an open‐plan compartment with exposed timber ceiling and columns:CodeRed #04

et al. 2023

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The use of mass timber in construction is becoming a compelling option when faced with the high carbon footprint of traditional concrete and steel production. However, fire safety standards are yet to evolve to support these designs. Encapsulation is commonly used to protect all, or some, of the timber surfaces and reduce the risks introduced. This paper presents the results from CodeRed #04, the final experiment of the CodeRed experimental campaign. This experiment was carried out inside a purpose‐built facility to capture fire dynamics in large compartments with exposed timber. CodeRed #04 had identical characteristics to CodeRed #01 with the exception that ~50% of the cross‐laminated timber (CLT) ceiling was encapsulated. The experiments were intentionally similar to the traveling fire experiments, x‐ONE and x‐TWO, which had a non‐combustible ceiling to enable a direct comparison. The overall fire dynamics experienced in CodeRed #04, intersect the characteristics observed in CodeRed #01 and x‐ONE and x‐TWO.1. In CodeRed #04, there was a delay in the ignition of the CLT ceiling as the CLT directly above the crib was encapsulated. Once the CLT ceiling ignited, the fire spread rapidly throughout the compartment. The peak heat release rate (HRR) was estimated to be approximately 100 MW, a 17% decrease from CodeRed #01. Following CLT ignition the resulting fire duration, maximum temperatures, and heat fluxes were broadly similar to CodeRed #01. Flame heights of approximately 1.5 m were observed from the windows while flame heights of 2.5–3 m were observed in CodeRed #01. Therefore, flame heights were found to be comparable to x‐TWO.1, though over a greater number of windows, reflecting the greater extent of simultaneous burning within the compartment. The average charring depth of the exposed CLT panels was ~25 mm, which is similar to that measured in CodeRed #01‐suggesting that the fire severity near the ceiling was not strongly impacted by the 50% encapsulation of timber. No charring was observed where the ceiling was encapsulated and loaded service fixings installed through the encapsulation were found to be less likely to fail than when attached directly to the exposed timber. Smoldering was observed after the cessation of flaming and, in a few locations, was observed to progress through the thickness of the CLT panel and continue behind the encapsulation. This illustrates that, while encapsulation can succcessfully prevent flaming, it cannot be completely relied on to avoid smouldering. The findings from CodeRed #04 contribute to the development of evidence‐based fire safety design methodologies for exposed mass timber buildings.

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Section: Experiments Resultssupporting

confidence: 57%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Impact of partial encapsulation on the fire dynamics of an open‐plan compartment with exposed timber ceiling and columns:CodeRed #04

et al. 2023

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“…In order to further investigate and quantify this important topic, additional fullscale tests are necessary. The series of tests [48] or the unpublished parts of the CodeRed test series [26,29] could provide further results. Unfortunately, the measurement results on the fac¸ades have not yet been published.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Overall, it is evident that the internationally available findings from full-scale fire tests are currently insufficient to conclusively clarify this issue. Since many factors such as geometry, opening factor [29,47], arrangement of timber surfaces [47], fire load density, compartment size, protection times of linings, etc. play a decisive role, it is not possible to make any general statements at the present time.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Impact of Mass Timber Compartment Fires on Façade Fire Exposure

Engel

Werther

2022

Fire Technol

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This study investigates whether timber surfaces that are initially exposed to fire or partially protected timber components can lead to a more critical fire exposure on the façade. Five full-scale fire tests were carried out. Three tests with a square compartment (4.5 × 4.5 m2) and two with a double-width compartment (4.5 × 9 m2). The tests were conducted with a high fire load density (1085 MJ/m2). While the first test was carried out in a non-combustible compartment, the exposed timber surfaces were subsequently increased in the other tests. The measured compartment gas temperature, heat release rate, temperature on the façade, flame heights along the façade, heat flux and velocities along the façade are presented in this publication. The influence of exposed or only initially protected timber surfaces on the fire impact on the façade is investigated with the help of these results. Finally, these findings are presented and compared with the results of other internationally conducted fire tests from literature. Additional structural fire load leads to an increase in temperatures on the façade. However, there is no significant difference in flame height between the tests. Another result was that an exposed mass timber ceiling leads to higher heat fluxes on the façade than an exposed mass timber wall. Graphical Abstract

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Review of fire experiments in mass timber compartments: Current understanding, limitations, and research gaps

et al. 2022

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The use of mass timber in buildings instead of non‐combustible materials has benefits in sustainability, aesthetics, construction times, and costs. However, the uptake of mass timber in modern construction for medium and high‐rise buildings is currently hindered by uncertainty regarding safety and structural performance in fire. We attribute this to a lack of data. Insufficient understanding means that for building designs beyond the current range of experiments the fire performance is unknown. To address this uncertainty, we review the available data in the scientific literature from 63 compartment fire experiments with timber, the majority of which use cross‐laminated timber (CLT). We found that most experiments reached temperatures 80–180°C greater than in non‐combustible compartments. Timber ceilings have on average a 16% lower char rate than timber walls. The heat release rate contribution of timber has a positive linear relationship with charring rate, however is susceptible to significant uncertainty and variability. There are limits to the data available, particularly in large open‐plan compartments of floor areas larger than 100 m2 where a wider range of heating conditions occur. Other topics where further understanding is required are compartments with exposed timber areas greater than 75%, compartments with smaller opening areas, and the hazard of smouldering following the flames. Therefore, additional research is needed to design beyond the limits, specifically in compartment size, ventilation, and timber exposure. This paper identifies correlations in the current body of experimental research to improve fire‐safe design of timber buildings.

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Impact of ventilation on the fire dynamics of an open‐plan compartment with exposed timber ceiling and columns: CodeRed #02

Cited by 12 publications

References 20 publications

Impact of partial encapsulation on the fire dynamics of an open‐plan compartment with exposed timber ceiling and columns:CodeRed #04

Impact of partial encapsulation on the fire dynamics of an open‐plan compartment with exposed timber ceiling and columns:CodeRed #04

Impact of Mass Timber Compartment Fires on Façade Fire Exposure

Review of fire experiments in mass timber compartments: Current understanding, limitations, and research gaps

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