Immunity Profiling of COVID-19 Infection, Dynamic Variations of Lymphocyte Subsets, a Comparative Analysis on Four Different Groups

Abstract

Background: A novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)-induced pneumonia (COVID-19) emerged in December 2019 in China, spreading worldwide. The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the immunological response and the clinical subset of peripheral lymphocyte subset alteration in COVID-19 infection. Methods: the study was conducted on four different clinical groups (n = 4; total n = 138). Each individual was assigned to different groups based on specific criteria evaluated at the admission such as fever, dyspnea, arterial blood gas analysis (ABG), oral-nasopharyngeal swab/RT-PCR, and thoracic CT-scan. Treatment was performed only after blood samples were collected from each patient (PP and PP) at day 1. The blood samples were analyzed and tested the same day (CBC and Flowcytometry). The positive–positive group (PP n = 45; F = 18/ M = 27; median age = 62.33), comprised individuals affected by COVID-19 who showed fever, dyspnea (ABG = pO2 < 60), confirmed positive by oral-nasopharyngeal swab/RT-PCR and with CT-scan showing ground-glass opacities. The negative–positive (NP; n = 37; F = 11/M = 26; median age = 75.94) or “COVID-like” group comprised individuals with fever and dyspnea (ABG = pO2 < 60), who tested negative to nasopharyngeal swab/RT-PCR, with CT-scans showing ground-glass opacities in the lungs. The negative–affected group (NA; n = 40; F = 14/M = 26; median age = 58.5) included individuals negative to COVID-19 (RT-PCR) but affected by different chronic respiratory diseases (the CT-scans didn’t show ground-glass opacities). Finally, the negative–negative group (NN; n = 16; F = 14/M = 2) included healthy patients (NN; n = 16; median age = 42.62). Data and findings were collected and compared. Results: Lymphocytes (%) cells showed a decline in COVID-19 patients. The subsets showed a significant association with the inflammatory status in COVID-19, especially with regard to increased neutrophils, T-killer, T-active, T-suppressor, and T-CD8+CD38+ in individuals belong to the either COVID-19 and Covid-like NP group. Conclusions: Peripheral lymphocyte subset alteration was associated with the clinical characteristics and progression of COVID-19. The level of sub-set cells T-lymphocytes (either high or low) and B-lymphocytes could be used as an independent predictor for COVID-19 severity and treatment efficacy.

COVID-19 Infection in Children and Infants: Current Status on Therapies and Vaccines

“…The immune system is assumed to be involved in MIS-C expression as it occurs only after the development of antibodies because of infection by the virus. Some studies have reported that the level of antibodies is related to the severity of the infection because they can mediate damage to the system, as there is a production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which activate a pro-inflammatory feedback loop resulting in barrier damage alveolo-capillary [ 84 , 85 ]. In this syndrome, as in Kawasaki disease, genetic alterations of the immune system are present and put children at greater risk by modulating the responses of T and B lymphocytes [ 86 ].…”

Effectiveness of SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines for Short- and Long-Term Immunity: A General Overview for the Pandemic Contrast

“…This would explain why men have a higher risk of developing severe forms of COVID-19. A study was performed with sensitive immunoassays and neutralisation tests detecting the presence of autoantibodies against type I interferons α, β, or ω in plasma samples from a large cohort of patients with COVID-19 and prepandemic controls [ 348 ]. Neutralising auto-Abs at high concentrations of IFN-α and/or IFN-ω are present in 0.18% of individuals between 18 and 69 years, 1.1% between 70 and 79 years and 3.4% >80 years, and in all individuals with a severe disease course but in none of the tested individuals with asymptomatic or paucisymptomatic infections.…”

“…It appears that at least 18% of patients dying of COVID-19 pneumonia produce auto-Abs capable of neutralising type I IFNs (100 pg/mL) in plasma 1:10 [ 346 ]. In contrast, IFN-β-neutralising auto-Abs do not become more frequent with age and their presence was associated with critical but not significantly severe diseases [ 348 ]. Usually, the production of antibodies against interferon occurs in patients with autoimmune diseases, which, in the study, resulted in only three in the 10% of cases.…”

“…For the treatment plan of these patients, the picture changes, because the use of interferons would trigger a massive and severe inflammatory response. A new clinical protocol, to be approved and tested, has been devised using plasmapheresis to eliminate autoantibodies from the blood [ 348 ]. The interferon, a molecule produced by our bodies in response to infection, plays a key role in both mechanisms.…”

Benefits and Implications of Resveratrol Supplementation on Microbiota Modulations: A Systematic Review of the Literature

“…The onset of metabolic, cardiovascular, inflammatory, neurological, psychic, and oncological diseases is often related to dysbiotic conditions [ 26 ]. A recent study on the role of the oral microbiome, dysbiosis, and long COVID was performed by metagenomic sequencing using lingual swabs from SARS-CoV-2-infected patients [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ]. In the oral MB of the patients with long COVID, bacteria such as Prevotella and Villanella predominated and are known to have inflammatory activity: Villanella strains stimulate IL-6 production, while Prevotella strains activate IL-23 and IL-1 and toll-like receptor 2 [ 4 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ].…”