Hypnosis Reconceptualized: An Overview of Barber's Theoretical and Empirical Work

Abstract

Sumn1ary.-This paper provides a summary and clarification of Barber's reconceprualization of "hypnosis" and contrasts ir with the traditional approach. Traditional hypnosis theory assumes that a special stare of consciousness (the hypnotic trance state) is instrumental in eliciting "hypnotic" behaviors. Barber rejecrs this basic assumption and focuses on denorable antecedent variables that are functionally related to the behaviors. Differences in arsumptions underlying the two approaches have led to fundamental differences in methodology, in the types of questions asked, and in the explanarions provided. All available criticisms of Barber's work are discussed and evaluated.For the past 100 years there has been a dominant concepn~alization or paradigm concerning the topic hypnosis. This paradigm, which might be called hypnotic scare theory, includes assumptions, methodological guidelines and implicic criteria for the selection of meaningful research topics. The pivotal assumption of this theory is that an altered state of consciousness, the hypnotic trance state, is instrumental in eliciting a wide range of behaviors which, due to their assumed antecedents, are called hypnotic behaviors. Recently, however, an entirely new paradigm has emerged. Although concerned with these same behaviors, the new paradigm rejecrs the fundamental assumptions and methodological guidelines which constic~~te the traditional viewpoint.The new approach to che topic hypnosis has evolved largely through the work of T. X. Barber and is reflected in his 72 published papers and in a forchcoming book (Barber, in press). One purpose of this paper is to provide a concise summary of this new paradigm and co review some of the pertinenc supporting evidence. A second purpose is to clarify some misconceptions which have appeared in discussion of Barber's work. These misconceptions have resulted largely from a failure to recognize that Barber rejects che fundamental assumptions of hypnoric stare theory. The clarification of these misunderstandings is related to a more general problem pertaining to the effects of anomalous data and theories on traditional scientific paradigms. A brief examination of this problem may provide a useful framework for viewing the relationship between Barber's paradigm and hypnotic scate theory.

Hypnotic phenomena and altered states of consciousness: a multilevel framework of description and explanation

“…This paradigm has proved to be very useful, but it has also been adequately criticized (e.g. Chaves, 1968;Spanos and Chaves, 1970) due to the confounding of the antecedent variables caused by the different instructions given to the two groups (a problem also noted by Orne 1972). 8 Goal-directed fantasy (GDF) means imagined situations that, if they were to occur in reality, would involve an involuntary occurrence of the behaviour called for by a suggestion (Spanos, 1971; see also Lynn and Sivec, 1992).…”

An Empirically-Based Formulation of Hypnotism

“…Two comments are relevant here. First of all, this traditional assumption has never been tested experimentally and, at the present time, it is not clear how it could be tested (Chaves, 1968). Secondly, when subjects in a hypnotic situation manifest loss of spontaneity, limpness-relaxation, "trance stare," psychomotor retardation, and other characteristics of a "hypnotic" appearance, these characteristics can be removed by telling the subject to stop manifesting them and many subjects will continue to respond positively to test-suggestions.…”

“…One interpretation is that, when the situation is defined to subjects as hypnotism, they are more likely to enter an altered state of consciousness ("a hypnotic state"). Unfortunately, this interpretation cannot be unequivocally confirmed or disconfirmed at the present time, because it is not clear how one could determine empirically whether the hypothesized alteraDownloaded by [Monash University Library] at 13:39 12 April 2015 EMPIRICALLY -BASED HYPNOSIS tion in consciousness is present or absent (Barber, 1964a;Chaves, 1968).…”

“…For instance, to demonstrate that a "trance state" plays a role in eliciting the behaviors traditionally associated with the word hypnotism, it is necessary first to denote the state and then to show that it is functionally related to and accounts for at least some of the variability in the behaviors. It should be clear to the reader that investigators who have attempted to explain the behaviors present in a hypnotic situation by positing an "altered state of consciousness" or "hypnotic trance state" have not as yet specified criteria for inferring the presence or absence of this "state" which are independent of the behaviors that are to be explained (Barber, 1964a;Chaves, 1968). It should also be clear that, although investigators have sought an unequivocal physiological index of the hypothesized "hypnotic state" for nearly 50 years, they have failed to find one (Barber, 1961;Crasilneck and Hall, 1959;Gorton, 1949;Levitt and Brady, 1963).…”

“…Let us first emphasize that, since the presence of an "altered state of consciousness"-"trance," "hypnosis," "hypnotic state"-is an inference that is made by observing the subjects' behaviors (consequent variables) (Barber, 1964a;Chaves, 1968;Edmonston, 1968), the presumed "altered state" cannot be satisfactorily treated as an antecedent variable. However, at the beginning of inquiry we can point to four classes of denotable antecedent variables that are present in hypnotic situations and that might play a role in producing body immobility, hallucination, amnesia, analgesia, and the other behaviors that are to be explained.…”