Human factors guidelines for applications of 3D perspectives: a literature review

Abstract

Once considered too processing-intense for general utility, application of the third dimension to convey complex information is facilitated by the recent proliferation of technological advancements in computer processing, 3D displays, and 3D perspective (2.5D) renderings within a 2D medium. The profusion of complex and rapidly-changing dynamic information being conveyed in operational environments has elevated interest in possible military applications of 3D technologies. 3D can be a powerful mechanism for clearer information portrayal, facilitating rapid and accurate identification of key elements essential to mission performance and operator safety. However, implementation of 3D within legacy systems can be costly, making integration prohibitive. Therefore, identifying which tasks may benefit from 3D or 2.5D versus simple 2D visualizations is critical. Unfortunately, there is no "bible" of human factors guidelines for usability optimization of 2D, 2.5D, or 3D visualizations nor for determining which display best serves a particular application. Establishing such guidelines would provide an invaluable tool for designers and operators. Defining issues common to each will enhance design effectiveness. This paper presents the results of an extensive review of open source literature addressing 3D information displays, with particular emphasis on comparison of true 3D with 2D and 2.5D representations and their utility for military tasks. Seventy-five papers are summarized, highlighting militarily relevant applications of 3D visualizations and 2.5D perspective renderings. Based on these findings, human factors guidelines for when and how to use these visualizations, along with recommendations for further research are discussed.

Immersive VR and Education: Embodied Design Principles That Include Gesture and Hand Controls

“…The use of VR in education is so new, and its affordances are of such a multitude, that design guidelines solely for education in VR have not yet been published. A meta-analysis commissioned by the US military (Dixon et al, 2009 ) found 400 documents that had the words “2D, 2.5D, and 3D applications for information visualization, display development, and guidelines for applications of dimensionality.” The search stopped in the year 2006. The study reports benefits when 3D technology was used to:…”

“…p. 11. Dixon et al (2009) found few studies that, if they reported on human performance at all, were not tied to performance with specific equipment. Thus, the findings were somewhat narrow and non-generalizable.…”

“…A meta-analysis commissioned by the US military (Dixon et al, 2009) found 400 documents that had the words "2D, 2.5D, and 3D applications for information visualization, display development, and guidelines for applications of dimensionality." The search stopped in the year 2006.…”

Virtual reality and learning: Where is the pedagogy?

“…The principles and practices of the combined framework must be presented in a way that practitioners can understand and apply them in their teaching and learning. Although guidelines exist to support the design of VR military applications (eg, Dixon, Fitzhugh & Aleva, ) and the design of the buildings and other objects within the VWs (eg, Saleeb & Dafoulas, ), more work is required in creating guidelines for educational applications and more critically for evaluating their acceptability and effectiveness.…”

Warfighter Visualizations Compilations

“…,Leeds, & Winer, 1988;Haskell & Wickens, 1993;Wickens, 2000;St. John, Cowen, Smallman, & Oonk, 2001; see reviews byNaikar, 1998, andDixon, Fitzhugh, &Aleva, 2009), but nearly all these works utilize flat 2D displays to show 2D images of 3D perspective geometry (sometimes called 2½D). These are not literally true depth displays in the same sense that stereoscopic displays are 3D because they do not require the binocular visual system.…”