Abstract:BACKGROUND: Since breastfeeding and human milk seem to prevent, while high dietary proteins in the first 2 y of life seem to promote, later overweight, questions have been raised on the safe levels of proteins in the early years. How much protein (as a percentage of total calorie intake) is safe? METHODS: Revision of available data on the protein content of human milk, protein intake in the first 2 y of life and their association with body mass development. RESULTS: We should move from the figure of 7-8% in th… Show more
“…The risk of obesity may be relevant, according to the protein-adiposity hypothesis, which postulates that a high protein intake during infancy and early childhood increases the risk of obesity (RollandCachera et al, 1995;Agostoni et al, 2005;Michaelsen et al, 2007). Some studies have supported this hypothesis (Rolland-Cachera et al, 1995;Scaglioni et al, 2000) but some have not (Vobecky et al, 1983;Dorosty et al, 2000;Hoppe et al, 2004b).…”
Background/Objectives: High protein intake has been associated with increased growth. This may be linked to increased concentrations of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), which seems to be influenced by the diet, especially its protein component. The short-term effects of high protein intake in late infancy are not known. The objective was to investigate the effects of high protein intake in the form of whole milk (WM) on growth and IGF-I from 9 to 12 months of age. Subjects/Methods: Healthy infants (n ¼ 83) were randomized to receive either WM or infant formula and fish oil or no fish oil (2 Â 2 design). Anthropometric variables, IGF-I concentrations, serum urea nitrogen (SUN) and diet were recorded before and after the intervention. Results: Intake of WM significantly increased the protein energy percentage (PE%; Pp0.001) and SUN (P ¼ 0.01), whereas there was no effect on size. The milk intervention increased IGF-I in boys (P ¼ 0.034) but not in girls. Intake of fish oil had no effect on the outcomes. Including all infants in the analysis there was a significant correlation between weight and IGF-I at 12 months (r ¼ 0.316, P ¼ 0.017), and PE% was positively associated with IGF-I after adjusting for sex and breastfeeding at both 9 (r ¼ 0.329, P ¼ 0.015) and 12 months (r ¼ 0.272, P ¼ 0.044). Conclusions: Randomization to WM had no overall effect on growth. However, the positive effect of WM on IGF-I in boys and the positive association between PE% intake and IGF-I at 9 and 12 months is consistent with the hypothesis that a high milk intake stimulates growth.
“…The risk of obesity may be relevant, according to the protein-adiposity hypothesis, which postulates that a high protein intake during infancy and early childhood increases the risk of obesity (RollandCachera et al, 1995;Agostoni et al, 2005;Michaelsen et al, 2007). Some studies have supported this hypothesis (Rolland-Cachera et al, 1995;Scaglioni et al, 2000) but some have not (Vobecky et al, 1983;Dorosty et al, 2000;Hoppe et al, 2004b).…”
Background/Objectives: High protein intake has been associated with increased growth. This may be linked to increased concentrations of insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), which seems to be influenced by the diet, especially its protein component. The short-term effects of high protein intake in late infancy are not known. The objective was to investigate the effects of high protein intake in the form of whole milk (WM) on growth and IGF-I from 9 to 12 months of age. Subjects/Methods: Healthy infants (n ¼ 83) were randomized to receive either WM or infant formula and fish oil or no fish oil (2 Â 2 design). Anthropometric variables, IGF-I concentrations, serum urea nitrogen (SUN) and diet were recorded before and after the intervention. Results: Intake of WM significantly increased the protein energy percentage (PE%; Pp0.001) and SUN (P ¼ 0.01), whereas there was no effect on size. The milk intervention increased IGF-I in boys (P ¼ 0.034) but not in girls. Intake of fish oil had no effect on the outcomes. Including all infants in the analysis there was a significant correlation between weight and IGF-I at 12 months (r ¼ 0.316, P ¼ 0.017), and PE% was positively associated with IGF-I after adjusting for sex and breastfeeding at both 9 (r ¼ 0.329, P ¼ 0.015) and 12 months (r ¼ 0.272, P ¼ 0.044). Conclusions: Randomization to WM had no overall effect on growth. However, the positive effect of WM on IGF-I in boys and the positive association between PE% intake and IGF-I at 9 and 12 months is consistent with the hypothesis that a high milk intake stimulates growth.
“…It might also be a factor of the amount of protein in the diet, with bottle-feeding and early weaning increasing protein intake (breast milk provides a relatively high amount of energy from fat), which may reduce the age of adiposity rebound and increase the risk of subsequent obesity 112 . Feeding style may also be important to the infant's risk of obesity.…”
Whilst the prevention of childhood obesity is the only viable, enduring, cost-effective solution to the obesity epidemic, effective methods for it remain elusive. Furthermore, strategies to influence obesogenic environments remain relatively unexplored. In order to be able to develop powerful population-level interventions and public health policies to prevent childhood obesity, it is important to understand its aetiology and those environments that are most amenable to measurable change. First, the present paper considers why we should be concerned about obesity in children, from both the perspective of the increased health risk to the individual and the high economic cost of treatment of obesity and related diseases, highlighting why the prevention of childhood obesity is important. Next, the determinants of health behaviour and the obesogenic environment are explored, which helps us to understand why the aetiology is so complex and that potential causal factors should not be considered in isolation, as the interaction between these factors is also important. The paper then considers the multi-factorial aetiology of childhood obesity and the rationale for the increasing trends in obesity that are evident, in order to understand what is changing in society and our children's behaviour that is triggering the positive energy balance leading to obesity. The review emphasises the need for multi-level approaches if we truly want to prevent childhood obesity. It also serves to highlight that there is a need to extend the current research base in order to build a well-founded framework to form the basis of a strategy for the prevention of childhood obesity.Aetiology of childhood obesity: Prevention of obesity: Obesogenic environments
“…Given an energy content of 272 to 280 kJ/100 mL (65 to 67/100 mL) of human milk, an RI of around 40 to 45 % E% as carbohydrates can be derived and considered adequate for the majority of infants in the first six months of life (Jensen, 1995 Panel, 2010f, 2012aPanel, 2010f, , 2013b and 15 E% as the maximum acceptable limit (Agostoni et al, 2005), an intake of carbohydrates between 45 E% and 55 E% can be considered adequate for the majority of infants in the second half of the first year of life.…”
Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) was asked to deliver a Scientific Opinion on the nutrient requirements and dietary intakes of infants and young children in the European Union. This Opinion describes the dietary requirements of infants and young children, compares dietary intakes and requirements in infants and young children in Europe and, based on these findings, concludes on the potential role of young-child formulae in the diets of infants and young children, including whether they have any nutritional benefits when compared with other foods that may be included in the normal diet of infants and young children. The Panel concluded on the levels of nutrient and energy intakes that are considered adequate for the majority of infants and young children, and evaluated the risk of inadequate nutrient intakes in infants and young children in living Europe. Dietary intakes of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), iron, vitamin D and iodine (in some European countries) are low in infants and young children living in Europe, and particular attention should be paid to ensuring an appropriate supply of ALA, DHA, iron, vitamin D and iodine in infants and young children with inadequate or at risk of inadequate status of these nutrients. No unique role of young-child formulae with respect to the provision of critical nutrients in the diet of infants and young children living in Europe can be identified, so that they cannot be considered as a necessity to satisfy the nutritional requirements of young children when compared with other foods that may be included in the normal diet of young children (such as breast milk, infant formulae, follow-on formulae and cow's milk).
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