How macrophages respond to two-dimensional materials: a critical overview focusing on toxicity

Abstract

With wider use of graphene-based materials and other two-dimensional (2D) materials in various fields, including electronics, composites, biomedicine, etc., 2D materials can trigger undesired effects at cellular, tissue and organ level. Macrophages can be found in many organs. They are one of the most important cells in the immune system and they are relevant in the study of nanomaterials as they phagocytose them. Nanomaterials have multi-faceted effects on phagocytic immune cells like macrophages, showing signs of inflammation in the form of pro-inflammatory cytokine or reactive oxidation species production, or upregulation of activation markers due to the presence of these foreign bodies. This review is catered to researchers interested in the potential impact and toxicity of 2D materials, particularly in macrophages, focusing on few-layer graphene, graphene oxide, graphene quantum dots, as well as other promising 2D materials containing molybdenum, manganese, boron, phosphorus and tungsten. We describe applications relevant to the growing area of 2D materials research, and the possible risks of ions and molecules used in the production of these promising 2D materials, or those produced by the degradation and dissolution of 2D materials.

Tungsten‐based Nanomaterials in the Biomedical Field: A Bibliometric Analysis of Research Progress and Prospects

“…summarized the biological effects of TNMs and macrophages to better understand and predict the possible mechanism. [ 163 ] Thongkumkoon et al. found that direct contact between naked DNA and WO 3 nanoplates led to DNA damage and induced mutations that led to cancer, disease, and gene changes.…”

“…Lin et al summarized the biological effects of TNMs and macrophages to better understand and predict the possible mechanism. [163] Thongkumkoon et al found that direct contact between naked DNA and WO 3 nanoplates led to DNA damage and induced mutations that led to cancer, disease, and gene changes. [164] Song et al attempted to assess toxicity by investigating the interactions between WO 3-x and two ubiquitous protein domains involved in protein-protein interactions.…”

Influence of Impurities from Manufacturing Process on the Toxicity Profile of Boron Nitride Nanotubes

“…Mechanistic studies investigating acute toxicity response to various environmental and occupational exposures consisting of spherical, 2D, or high aspect ratio particulates highlight the role of molecular initiating events NF-κB and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. [52][53][54][55][56][57] The influence of impurities and increase in presence of high aspect ratio particulate with increasing BNNT purity was further investigated using a mechanismbased screening approach. This approach evaluated the dose response in activation of these molecular initiating events with hBN, AP-, BR-, W1-, and W2-BNNTs.…”

Chemical degradation kinetics for two-dimensional materials in natural and biological environments – a data-driven review

“…161 The pathogenicity of long, stiff, biopersistent respirable fibers or nanofibers is well established, 162,163 but for non-fibrous 2D materials the causal relationship between shape, size, and pathogenicity has not been systematically assessed across all material classes. [164][165][166][167] Hazard assessment of "P"-class 2D materials must obviously focus on the solid nanosheets themselves and may depend in complex ways on multiple properties such as lateral dimension, flexibility, and aggregation state. Because of the long-time scales potentially involved in pathogenesis, "P" materials represent the most difficult case for proper testing and hazard assessment of 2D materials.…”