“…Hot deformation is one of the most well-known ways to enhance the mechanical properties of metals and alloys [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ] via grain refinements [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ], in which temperature is raised above recrystallization temperature during plastic deformation. The enhancement to the mechanical properties is controlled by work hardening, dynamic recovery (DRV), and dynamic recrystallization (DRX), which have a huge effect on the microstructure as well as the flow stress behavior of the alloys [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].…”
This paper reviews the flow behavior and mathematical modeling of various metals and alloys at a wide range of temperatures and strain rates. Furthermore, it discusses the effects of strain rate and temperature on flow behavior. Johnson–Cook is a strong phenomenological model that has been used extensively for predictions of the flow behaviors of metals and alloys. It has been implemented in finite element software packages to optimize strain, strain rate, and temperature as well as to simulate real behaviors in severe conditions. Thus, this work will discuss and critically review the well-proven Johnson–Cook and modified Johnson–Cook-based models. The latest model modifications, along with their strengths and limitations, are introduced and compared. The coupling effect between flow parameters is also presented and discussed. The various methods and techniques used for the determination of model constants are highlighted and discussed. Finally, future research directions for the mathematical modeling of flow behavior are provided.
“…Hot deformation is one of the most well-known ways to enhance the mechanical properties of metals and alloys [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ] via grain refinements [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ], in which temperature is raised above recrystallization temperature during plastic deformation. The enhancement to the mechanical properties is controlled by work hardening, dynamic recovery (DRV), and dynamic recrystallization (DRX), which have a huge effect on the microstructure as well as the flow stress behavior of the alloys [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].…”
This paper reviews the flow behavior and mathematical modeling of various metals and alloys at a wide range of temperatures and strain rates. Furthermore, it discusses the effects of strain rate and temperature on flow behavior. Johnson–Cook is a strong phenomenological model that has been used extensively for predictions of the flow behaviors of metals and alloys. It has been implemented in finite element software packages to optimize strain, strain rate, and temperature as well as to simulate real behaviors in severe conditions. Thus, this work will discuss and critically review the well-proven Johnson–Cook and modified Johnson–Cook-based models. The latest model modifications, along with their strengths and limitations, are introduced and compared. The coupling effect between flow parameters is also presented and discussed. The various methods and techniques used for the determination of model constants are highlighted and discussed. Finally, future research directions for the mathematical modeling of flow behavior are provided.
Low‐carbon microalloyed steel with the microstructure of bainite is frequently utilized to produce automotive parts. The systematic investigation of the hot deformation behavior can serve as a reference for the optimization of deformation process parameters. The hot deformation of 0.2C–2.0Mn–0.5Cr microalloyed steel is studied. Based on the stress–strain curve, an Arrhenius model with strain compensation is established. The correlation coefficient R2 and the average absolute relative error calculated according to this model are 0.962 and 4.871%. The microstructure evolution at the strain of 0.90 is studied. In the stable region with substantial power dissipation, the microstructure is uniformly fine. The strain rate is high in the stable region with low‐power dissipation, and the room‐temperature microstructure after deformation retains a large amount of deformation storage energy and fine substructures. During deformation, the banded structures are formed in the instable region. The difference in dislocation density between the band structure and the nearby regions promotes the formation of necklace microstructures. Therefore, the 0.2C–2.0Mn–0.5Cr microalloyed steel has an ideal deformation process window in the range of a hot deformation temperature of 880–920 °C and a strain rate of 0.1–0.3 s−1.
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