Holi colours contain PM10 and can induce pro-inflammatory responses

Abstract

BackgroundAt Holi festivals, originally celebrated in India but more recently all over the world, people throw coloured powder (Holi powder, Holi colour, Gulal powder) at each other. Adverse health effects, i.e. skin and ocular irritations as well as respiratory problems may be the consequences. The aim of this study was to uncover some of the underlying mechanisms.MethodsWe analysed four different Holi colours regarding particle size using an Electric field cell counting system. In addition, we incubated native human cells with different Holi colours and determined their potential to induce a pro-inflammatory response by quantifying the resulting cytokine production by means of ELISA (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay) and the resulting leukocyte oxidative burst by flow cytometric analysis. Moreover, we performed the XTT (2,3-Bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide) and Propidium iodide cytotoxicity tests and we measured the endotoxin content of the Holi colour samples by means of the Limulus Amebocyte Lysate test (LAL test).ResultsWe show here that all tested Holi colours consist to more than 40 % of particles with an aerodynamic diameter smaller than 10 μm, so called PM10 particles (PM, particulate matter). Two of the analysed Holi powders contained even more than 75 % of PM10 particles.Furthermore we demonstrate in cell culture experiments that Holi colours can induce the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α (Tumor necrosis factor-α), IL-6 (Interleukine-6) and IL-1β (Interleukine-1β). Three out of the four analysed colours induced a significantly higher cytokine response in human PBMCs (Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells) and whole blood than corn starch, which is often used as carrier substance for Holi colours. Moreover we show that corn starch and two Holi colours contain endotoxin and that certain Holi colours display concentration dependent cytotoxic effects in higher concentration. Furthermore we reveal that in principle Holi colours and corn starch are able to generate an oxidative burst in human granulocytes and monocytes. In Holi colour 1 we detected a fungal contamination.ConclusionsSome of the observed unwanted health effects of Holi colours might be explained by the high content of PM10 particles in conjunction with the possible induction of a pro-inflammatory response and an oxidative leukocyte burst.

Association between changes in air quality and hospital admissions during the holi festival

“…India is a country of festivals and among them holi is an important festival. Moreover, now holi is celebrated across many countries over the world [3]. Holi is celebrated between the late winter (February) and summer season (i.e., March-April).…”

“…Bonfires are often it on the nights before and during the festival day can have significant impact on the ambient air quality. Concerns regarding degradation of air quality and possible subsequent effects on human health related to use of bonfire during festivals and celebrations has been highlighted [3]. Colours and bonfires are closely linked to elevated levels of pollutants, including particulate matter (PM), SO 2 , NO x , K, and ozone, amongst others [3,10].…”

“…Concerns regarding degradation of air quality and possible subsequent effects on human health related to use of bonfire during festivals and celebrations has been highlighted [3]. Colours and bonfires are closely linked to elevated levels of pollutants, including particulate matter (PM), SO 2 , NO x , K, and ozone, amongst others [3,10]. Gupta et al [14] reported that colors used during holi create high concentrations of ambient PM with a chemical composition that differs from normal atmospheric conditions and may be harmful to human health.…”

“…Few studies are available on use of colors and its association with health effects such as skin diseases and respiratory problems; moreover they also have reported the changes in concentration of PM during festival activities like playing with colors [3,12,14]. Despite growing evidence of adverse air quality and possible health effects related to the use of colors and bonfires, hardly studies have measured PM 2.5 , its constituents during holi.…”

“…Generally, chemical analysis is used to assess the chemical variation in concentrations at workplaces and to compare concentrations with regulatory standards or guidelines to improve the air quality [25]. Bossmann et al [3] reported that chemical based air quality analysis is superior to digital data set in predicting the accurate exposure to PM concentrations. The aim of is the present study was to assess the change in air quality during the holi festival period and changes in the number of hospital admission due to emergency medical conditions such as eye irritation, skin diseases and respiratory problems.…”