Higher Levels of Intelligence and Executive Functioning Protect Maltreated Children Against Adult Arrests: A Prospective Study

Abstract

Research shows that maltreated children are at elevated risk for arrest as adults and that higher verbal intelligence, reading ability, and executive functioning (abstract reasoning and cognitive flexibility) may be protective against criminal behavior. The current study examines this hypothesis using data from court substantiated cases of child abuse and neglect and demographically matched controls followed prospectively into middle adulthood (N = 1,196). At age 29, verbal intelligence was assessed with the Quick Test and reading ability with the WRAT-R. At age 41, abstract reasoning was assessed with the Matrix Reasoning test and cognitive flexibility with the Trail Making Test-B. Arrest records were gathered from law enforcement agencies through mean age 51. Data were analyzed with binomial logistic regressions. The results indicated that maltreated children were at increased risk for arrest for nonviolent and violent crime. Higher verbal intelligence, reading ability, nonverbal reasoning, and cognitive flexibility were protective against arrest for violent crime. The protective effects of neuropsychological functions were more pronounced for violent than nonviolent crime, for the control than maltreated children, and differed by gender and race. These results suggest that interventions targeting improved cognitive and neuropsychological functions may serve an important role in reducing risk for crime.

Characterizing competence among a high-risk sample of emerging adults: Prospective predictions and biological considerations

“…Notably, 40% of individuals in this class reported involvement in higher education or vocational training. The pattern in this class is consistent with investigations that have found that positive educational experiences can be protective in buffering cascading effects for individuals with externalizing symptoms (Allwood & Widom, 2013; Nikulina & Widom, 2019; Smith, Park, Ireland, Elwyn, & Thornberry, 2013). Additionally, because emerging adulthood represents a period of peak substance use and the possible continuation of impulsivity and sensation-seeking that is common to adolescence (Masten et al, 2004), the high rates of externalizing behaviors and substance use in this class may simply reflect normative exploratory behaviors that have reached an apex, and will soon decline as individuals mature (Schulenberg et al, 2004).…”

“…It is possible that IQ represents a set of core cognitive resources that protect against the negative effects of elevated conduct behaviors and substance use, allowing individuals in this group to do well in all other domains. This interpretation would be consistent with studies documenting the protective effects of IQ in resilient outcomes (Luthar & Zelazo, 2003; Masten et al, 1999; Masten et al, 2004; Nikulina & Widom, 2019). Alternatively, the increased externalizing problems in this class may represent environmentally adaptive behaviors that are conditional responses to disadvantaged contexts (Belsky, 2019).…”

“…That maltreated children are more likely to exhibit challenges across multiple domains of functioning in emerging adulthood is not surprising, given the multilevel, multidomain sequelae of child maltreatment (Cicchetti & Toth, 2016). Regarding the domains assessed in the current study, several investigations have demonstrated an association between child maltreatment and maladaptive conduct behaviors in emerging adulthood (Nikulina & Widom, 2019). Similarly, findings from multiple prospective studies of maltreated and nonmaltreated individuals suggest that emerging adults with maltreatment histories have significantly lower rates of high school graduation and overall educational attainment compared to nonabused peers (Allwood & Widom, 2013; Jaffee et al, 2018; Noll et al, 2010; Smith et al, 2013).…”

“…For example, competence in the educational domain predicts desistance in conduct behaviors across the life course (Allwood & Widom, 2013; Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, Van Kammen, & Farrington, 1991; Zingraff, Leiter, Johnsen, & Myers, 1994). It is possible that the current investigation is observing individuals in the Externalizing Problems class while they are in the midst of a developmental turning point, where the protective effects of positive functioning in interpersonal, academic, and work domains will begin, or continue, to lessen the effects of the externalizing symptoms as they continue to transition to adulthood (Jaffee et al, 2018; Jung, Herrenkohl, Skinner, & Rousson, 2018; Nikulina & Widom, 2019).…”

Objective and subjective experiences of child maltreatment and their relationships with psychopathology

“…These design characteristics represent major strengths, but they also pose limitations about the generalizability of the findings. 32 and reproduced in this paragraph with permission and minor modifications. Neglect cases reflected a judgment that the parents' deficiencies in childcare were beyond those found acceptable by community and professional standards at the time.…”