High levels of population differentiation in Eurasian lynx at the edge of the species' western range in Europe revealed by mitochondrial DNA analyses

Abstract

Large terrestrial carnivores are particularly prone to factors constraining levels of population genetic diversity because of their low densities and high spatial requirements. We studied the pattern of Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx population genetic variability in the westernmost part of its natural range from Scandinavia to the Carpathian Mountains (north-central Europe) based on 190 samples using 613 base pair-long sequences from the mitochondrial DNA control region (mtDNAcr). We examined whether the population history or contemporary habitat constraints of this large and mobile carnivore could have significantly affected its genetic structure. We recorded nine mtDNA haplotypes, including five not previously reported. Lynx from Latvia and Estonia had the highest variability with haplotype and nucleotide diversities of 0.81-0.88% and 0.44-0.47%, respectively. In contrast, there was no polymorphism present in peripheral populations from Norway and the Carpathian Mountains. Lynx populations were strongly differentiated [analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA): FST = 0.570, P < 0.001, FST = 0.464, P < 0.001)]. Spatial Analysis of Molecular Variance identified four separate groups of populations: (1) Norway, Finland and Estonia; (2) Latvia and North Eastern Poland; (3) the Białowieża Primeval Forest; (4) the Carpathians. The patterns of genetic diversity and differentiation suggested a number of discrete populations that are poorly connected by contemporary gene flow and could therefore be considered demographically independent. The peripheral location of these populations, habitat fragmentation and the strict territorial structure of lynx populations are factors likely contributing to the observed patterns. The study provides suggestions for active conservation/management decisions including translocations or reintroductions of lynx. bs_bs_banner Animal Conservation. Print ISSN 1367-9430 Animal Conservation 15 (2012) 603-612

Retention of functional variation despite extreme genomic erosion: MHC allelic repertoires in the Lynx genus

“…In contrast, the bobcat, Canada, and Eurasian lynx, based on mtDNA and microsatellites have shown moderate levels of genetic diversity and little genetic structure across most of their ranges [39, 43, 44]. Hence, the Lynx genus arises as a good model to study patterns of functional genetic variation following extreme overall genetic erosion.…”

Edge effect and influence of economic growth on Eurasian lynx mortality in the Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland

“…Such population sinks may effectively reduce the dispersal rate of lynx and thus the gene flow between neighbouring populations inhabiting different forest patches. Indeed, based on mtDNA haplotype frequencies, it was found that the lynx population from the BPF was significantly divergent from neighbouring populations (Ratkiewicz et al 2012). Furthermore, it was characterised by a relatively low allelic richness (Schmidt et al 2009) when compared to Latvian and Estonian lynx which populate more continuous habitats.…”

“…The ranging and dispersal routes of lynx have been shown to be dependent on the distribution and availability of woodlands Schmidt 1998;Podgórski et al 2008). Recent studies on lynx genetic diversity and differentiation have suggested that closely situated but isolated populations are poorly connected through contemporary gene flow (Schmidt et al 2009(Schmidt et al , 2011Ratkiewicz et al 2012), indicating the possible effect of habitat fragmentation on the effectiveness of lynx dispersal. Studies in Scandinavia have shown that human-induced factors (harvest, poaching, vehicle collisions) are the chief mortality causes in this species (Andrén et al 2006) and that human-dominated areas represent a potentially high mortality risk for the lynx (Bunnefeld et al 2006).…”

“…excluding the reintroduced populations) in Europe, this area is crucial for the conservation and potential expansion of this predator westwards. Unravelling the factors limiting lynx dispersal in this range may help to preserve the genetic diversity and effective gene flow between the populations (Garner et al 2005;Ratkiewicz et al 2012).…”

Conservation of a new breeding population of Caucasian lynx(Lynx lynx dinniki) in eastern Turkey

“…While lynx have been successfully reintroduced to several areas of central and western Europe (Kaczensky et al, 2013), habitat availability and human-carnivore conflict continue to be critical barriers to their success in many areas. As a result, habitat constraints and limited connectivity between Eurasian lynx populations have resulted in high levels of genetic differentiation in parts of their western range (Ratkiewicz et al, 2012). In some cases, isolated populations have been recognized as subspecies of lynx, leading to the designation of discrete, demographically independent populations.…”