The concept of refugee species provides a theoretical framework towards increasing the predictive power of the ‘declining population paradigm’ through identifying species which are expected to suffer from a declining population syndrome. Using a simple habitat model as a framework, refugee species are defined as those that can no longer access optimal habitat, but are confined to suboptimal habitats, with consequences of decreased fitness and density, and attendant conservation risks. Refugee species may be difficult to detect in the absence of information on prior habitat use and fitness and their observed ecology will be constrained by the habitat limits forced on them. Identification of refugee species, characterisation of pre‐refugee ecology and the restoration of such species to optimal habitat is critical to their successful conservation. The concept is showcased by addressing the conundrum of a large grazing bovid, the European bison Bison bonasus, being managed as a forest specialist, despite its evolutionary background, dental morphology, neonatal behaviour, diet and microhabitat selection being characteristic of a grazing species inhabiting open, grass‐rich habitats. It is hypothesized that a combination of increasing replacement of open steppe by forest cover after the last postglacial period and increasing human pressure forced bison into forests as a refuge habitat. This process was then reinforced through active management of bison in forests as managers committed themselves to the ‘bison as forest species’ paradigm. A research agenda to test this hypothesis using an experimental approach in the conservation management of European bison by introducing populations into diverse habitat types is suggested.

We aimed to review the history of the introduction and colonization of the raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides in Europe, the features behind its successful expansion and its impact on native fauna. The raccoon dog quickly colonized new areas after being introduced to the European part of the former Soviet Union. Today it is widespread in Northern and Eastern Europe and is still spreading in Central Europe. Features behind its success include its adaptability, high reproductive potential, omnivory, hibernation in northern areas, multiple introductions with > 9000 individuals from different localities, and tendency to wander enabling gene flow between populations. Firm evidence of the raccoon dog’s negative impact on native fauna, such as a reduction in bird populations, is still scarce. Raccoon dogs may destroy waterfowl nests, although a nest predation study in Latvia did not confirm this. Predator removal studies in Finland suggested that the raccoon dog’s impact on game birds is smaller than expected. However, raccoon dogs may have caused local extinction of frog populations, especially on islands. Raccoon dogs may compete with other carnivores for food, for example for carrion in winter, or for the best habitat patches. In northern Europe potential competitors include the red fox Vulpes vulpes and the badger Meles meles, but studies of their diets or habitat preferences do not indicate severe competition. The raccoon dog is an important vector of diseases and parasites, such as rabies, Echinococcus multilocularis and Trichinella spp. and this is no doubt the most severe consequence arising from the spread of this alien species in Europe.

. 1997. Predation of Eurasian lynx on roe deer and red deer in Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland. Acta Theriologica 42: 203-224.Patterns of lynx Lynx lynx (Linnaeus, 1758) predation on ungulates were studied in the Polish part of Białowieża Primeval Forest (580 km 2 ) from scats and prey remains of lynx between 1985-1996, and radiotracking of 18 lynx between 1991-1996. Cervids were the main prey and constituted 90% of food biomass consumed (analysis of faeces) and 84% of prey killed. Roe deer Capreolus capreolus was positively selected by all lynx (though stronger by females and subadults than by adult males). Fawns and adult roe deer of both sexes were preyed on in proportion to their abundance in the population. Red deer Cervus elaphus was taken less often than would have been expected at random, and fawns were positively selected by lynx. On average, lynx spent 76 h (3.2 days) feeding on a killed deer (from 38 h in a female with 3 kittens to 105 h in single adult females). Mean searching time (ie time from leaving the remains of one deer to killing another one) was 52 h (2.2 days); from 10 h in a female with 3 young to 104 h in subadults. Thus, the average kill rate by lynx was one deer per 5.4 days. Predation impact of lynx population on roe and red deer was estimated in 1991-1996, when recorded numbers were 288-492 roe deer and 359-607 red deer per 100 km" in late winter (March), and 501-820 roe deer and 514-858 red deer per 100 km" in spring (May/June). During that period densities of deer declined markedly due to deliberately elevated hunting harvest by forestry personnel, aimed at reduction of game damage to silviculture. Densities of adult lynx were little variable (2.4-3.2 inds/100 km ), but reproduction rate strongly varied in response to deer decline, from 0.67 juv/adult lynx in 1991/92 to 0.25 juv/adult lynx in 1995/96. Annually, lynx population killed 110-169 roe deer/100 km 2 , which constituted 21-36% of spring (seasonally highest) numbers of roe deer. Lynx predation was the most important factor of roe deer mortality. Furthermore, lynx population took 42-70 red deer/100 km annually, which constituted 6-13% of spring number of red deer. In red deer mortality, lynx predation played an inferior role to hunting harvest and wolf predation.