Harvard Dictionary of Music

Apel, Willi

doi:10.2307/935312

Cited by 34 publications

(26 citation statements)

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“…It is a polyrhythm. A polyrhYthm involves two simultaneously recurrent periodicities that form a noninteger time ratio (e.g., 4:3 and 4:5; Apel, 1972). It is literally a temporal phasing of two time hierarchies.…”

Section: Distributions Of Time Markers: Role Of Time Transformationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Dynamic attending and responses to time.

Jones¹,

Boltz²

1989

Psychological Review

908

852

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A temporally based theory of attending is proposed that assumes that the structure of world events affords different attending modes. Future-oriented attending supports anticipatory behaviors and occurs with highly coherent temporal events. Time judgments, given this attending mode, axe influenced by the way an event's ending confirms or violates temporal expectancies. Analytic attending supports other activities (e.g., grouping, counting), and if it occurs with events of low temporal coherence, then time judgments depend on the attending levels involved. A weighted contrast model describes over-and underestimations of event durations. The model applies to comparative duration judgments of equal and unequal time intervals; its rationale extends to temporal productions/extrapolations. Two experiments compare predictions of the contrast model with those derived from other traditional approaches.One characteristic of modern society is a preoccupation with fixed time schedules and standardized timekeepers. We maintain appointments at hourly intervals, rush to meet the 5:00 p.m. bus, and dine at predetermined hours. Yet our natural ability to judge time remains poorly understood. How often do we estimate the time elapsed since last glancing at a clock and discover with surprise that we were fairly accurate? Surprise is understandable because at least as often we lose track of time and err. The validity of these impressions is confirmed by laboratory research showing that duration judgments depend not only on actual physical duration but also on a variety of nontemporal factors. These include the spatial layout and complexity of an event as well as the attentional set, skill, affect, and constitutional state of the judge (Allan, 1979;Fraisse, 1984; Kristofferson, 1984).Researchers have addressed many of these issues that include both psychophysical problems (e.g., Weber's Law for time discrimination) and organismic variables (e.g., age, drugs, and arousal effects). Of recent interest is the influence of nontemporal information on time judgments, due largely to a fascination with such problems as the filled interval effect. This phenomenon reveals that two equivalent time intervals may not be judged as such because of the nontemporal information that fills them. Although the most popular models of judged duration attempt to explain this effect (e.g., Block, 1978;Ornstein, 1969), the effect itself raises problems for a general theory of time estimation (Allan, 1979).In this article we focus on some problems raised by the filled This research was supported by Grant BNS-8204811 from the National Science Foundation and by a fellowship from the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study awarded to the senior author (I 986-1987).The authors thank Chris Antons, David Buffer, Walter Johnson, Gary Kidd, Kerri Marsh, Elizabeth Maxshburn, John Michon, Mitch Pratt, Ken Pugh, Jackie Ralston, and Wither wan Vreden. Special thanks axe due to Steve Handel and two anonymous reviewers for their excellent comments on an earlier version of...

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Section: Distributions Of Time Markers: Role Of Time Transformationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Dynamic attending and responses to time.

Jones¹,

Boltz²

1989

Psychological Review

908

852

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“…Generally speaking, rhythm is the whole feeling of movement in time, including pulse, phrasing, harmony, and meter (Apel, 1972;Lerdahl & Jackendoff, 1983). More commonly, however, rhythm refers to the temporal patterning of event durations in an auditory sequence.…”

Section: Rhythm Metrical Structure and Music Notationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Perceiving temporal regularity in music

2002

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We address how listeners perceive temporal regularity in music performances, which are rich in temporal irregularities. A computational model is described in which a small system of internal self-sustained oscillations, operating at different periods with specific phase and period relations, entrains to the rhythms of music performances. Based on temporal expectancies embodied by the oscillations, the model predicts the categorization of temporally changing event intervals into discrete metrical categories, as well as the perceptual salience of deviations from these categories. The model's predictions are tested in two experiments using piano performances of the same music with different phrase structure interpretations (Experiment 1) or different melodic interpretations (Experiment 2). The model successfully tracked temporal regularity amidst the temporal fluctuations found in the performances. The model's sensitivity to performed deviations from its temporal expectations compared favorably with the performers' structural (phrasal and melodic) intentions. Furthermore, the model tracked normal performances (with increased temporal variability) better than performances in which temporal fluctuations associated with individual voices were removed (with decreased variability). The small, systematic temporal irregularities characteristic of human performances (chord asynchronies) improved tracking, but randomly generated temporal irregularities did not. These findings suggest that perception of temporal regularity in complex musical sequences is based on temporal expectancies that adapt in response to temporally fluctuating input.

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“…An accent marks the beginning of each metrical unit or bar, which is traditionally notated by vertical lines dividing the musical events into bars. Meter is also notated by time signatures; for instance, the time signature of 43 meter signifies that the primary accent occurs on every third beat (indicated by the numerator) and the beats are quarter-note durations (indicated by the denominator; Apel, 1972).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Generally, rhythm is the whole feeling of movement in time, including breathing, pulse, phrasing, tonality, and meter (Apel, 1972;Lerdahl & Jackendoff, 1983). More commonly, rhythm refers to a group of musical events containing one accented event and one or more unaccented events (Cooper & Meyer, 1960).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Mental representations for musical meter.

Palmer¹,

Krumhansl²

1990

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Perfor

290

353

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Investigations of the psychological representation for musical meter provided evidence for an internalized hierarchy from 3 sources: frequency distributions in musical compositions, goodnessof-fit judgments of temporal patterns in metrical contexts, and memory confusions in discrimination judgments. The frequency with which musical events occurred in different temporal locations differentiates one meter from another and coincides with music-theoretic predictions of accent placement. Goodness-of-fit judgments for events presented in metrical contexts indicated a multileveled hierarchy of relative accent strength, with finer differentiation among hierarchical levels by musically experienced than inexperienced listeners. Memory confusions of temporal patterns in a discrimination task were characterized by the same hierarchy of inferred accent strength. These findings suggest mental representations for structural regularities underlying musical meter that influence perceiving, remembering, and composing music.Perception of music, speech, and other complex human behaviors requires the processing of structured information over time. Psychological theories of serially ordered behaviors often reveal hierarchical principles of mental processing and organization that express relations among nonadjacent as well as adjacent events. Mental representations for these behaviors suggest that the complex information is recoded or organized in a form more efficient for abstract operations. A primary assumption is that the observed behavior involves complex mental processes that transform early sensory information, compare it to detailed memories, and apply decision rules to the transformed internal codes.This theoretical framework suggests that music perception involves the recoding and organizing of musical material through reference to a more abstract system of knowledge about musical structure. This abstract knowledge often represents the underlying regularities found in one's own musical culture, such as a particular tonal system or common metrical properties. These mental structures may facilitate comprehension of global aspects of musical structure and lead to expectations about future events. Thus, tonality can provide a (pitch-based) framework for melodic expectations, and meter may provide a (time-based) framework from which temporal expectations are formed. The research described later focuses on the nature of mental representation of one important aspect of musical structure: meter. We present evidence indicating that abstract knowledge of meter affects comprehension, memory, and composition of Western tonal music.

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Harvard Dictionary of Music

Cited by 34 publications

References 0 publications

Dynamic attending and responses to time.

Dynamic attending and responses to time.

Perceiving temporal regularity in music

Mental representations for musical meter.

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