“…These properties make them suitable in a broad array of applications ( Hashem and Salem, 2022 ; Hashem et al, 2023 ) including gas sensors ( Shin et al, 2023 ), lithium-ion batteries ( Fang et al, 2023 ), dye-sensitized solar cells ( Jin et al, 2023 ), adsorption ( Debnath and Das, 2023 ), heterogeneous photodegradation ( Mota et al, 2023 ), biosensing ( Lei et al, 2023 ), and antibacterial substrates ( lashin et al, 2023 ; Al-Askar et al, 2023 ). Additionally, NPs have shown a vast range of biological applications, including antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties ( Singh et al, 2023 ). They represent a promising alternative to antibiotics because NPs can target most bacteria as well as fungi, and exhibit a broad spectrum of activity ( Długosz et al, 2022 ).…”