Global Biogeochemical Cycle of Lithium

Abstract

Lithium is the lightest alkali metal and is one of a group of three elements (Li, Be, and B) that are anomalously rare in the Universe based on the standard cosmological model (Malaney & Fowler, 1988;Vangioni & Cassé, 2018). Due to its particular chemical properties (i.e., low atomic mass, high reactivity, and easy exchange of the outermost of its three electrons), Li has become a key element in modern batteries. A typical electric vehicle battery, for example, may contain as much as 12 kg of Li, which-combined with other industrial applications-contributes to the growing worldwide demand for Li (Bibienne et al., 2020).Lithium is mined commercially from pegmatite minerals (e.g., lepidolite and spodumene) mostly in Australia and China. Large quantities of Li are also extracted from evaporite minerals and associated brines, with the largest production occurring in Chile, Argentina, and the United States. Current annual global production of Li is 77,000 mt/year (77 × 10 9 g/year; U.S. Geological Survey, 2020). At current use, proven reserves are expected to last for about 200 years, but demand for Li is estimated to increase 10-fold by 2050 (Sovacool et al., 2020). Junne et al. (2020) estimate that the ratio of cumulative Li demand to reserves may be as high as 6.5. Clearly, new deposits must be found, and large-scale recycling instituted, to accommodate increasing future demand.Although Li has no known role in biochemistry, it has long been used to treat bipolar disorder and other problems of mental health (Geddes et al., 2004). The mechanism of its efficacy has not been fully elucidated (Curran & Ravindran, 2014). At high levels, Li is toxic to plants (

Variability in the Concentration of Lithium in the Indo‐Pacific Ocean

“…The global lithium cycle is currently strongly out of balance because anthropogenic activities have increased the mobilization of lithium by 500% (Schlesinger et al., 2021). The anthropogenic perturbation may explain the observed surface ocean patterns in lithium concentrations.…”

“…This suggests that most of the excess lithium comes from a limited geographic region, unlike lead pollution that originates from multiple Asian countries. Schlesinger et al (2021) calculated that coal combustion comprised 53% of the total atmospheric emission of lithium in 2019, without sea-spray. 33.1% of the global production of coal took place in the northern China provinces of Shanxi and Inner Mongolia, and this coal is 8 times higher in lithium than coal from the rest of the world, including other Chinese sources.…”

Reimagining safe lithium applications in the living environment and its impacts on human, animal, and plant system

“…estimated the Li concentrations in the coal combustion residuals, which was 372 mg kg −1 [ 51 , 52 ]. Previous studies documented the release of fly ash particles into the atmosphere and deposition on surface soils [ [52] , [53] , [54] ]. Schlesinger et al.…”

“…Schlesinger et al. estimated that 10% of the Li in coal combustion residues was released to the atmosphere in particles forms, inferring a global Li flux of 55 × 10 9 g year −1 in 2019 (i.e., 10% of the Li flux from coal combustion escapes as fly ash aerosols) [ 52 ]. On the other hand, during the recycling process of LIBs, fine particles are released into the air system.…”

Proactive approach to minimize lithium pollution

“…With an estimated consumption increasing rate of 18% per year, by 2050, approximately 10 Tg of lithium will be required (Bae & Kim, 2021). Currently, the release of lithium to the environment from anthropogenic perturbations, including coal and oil productions, has already reached 500% of natural weathering processes, doubling the transport of dissolved lithium to the sea (69 × 10 9 g/year) (Schlesinger et al., 2021). The release of lithium to the environment is expected to increase significantly in the coming decades.…”