Glass, Ceramic, Polymeric, and Composite Scaffolds with Multiscale Porosity for Bone Tissue Engineering

Abstract

Porosity affects performance of scaffolds for bone tissue engineering both in vitro and in vivo. Macropores (i.e., pores with a diameter >100 μm) are essential for cellular infiltration; micropores (i.e., pores with a diameter of 1–10 μm) promote cell adhesion and facilitate nutrient absorption. Scaffolds containing both macropores and micropores exploit the advantages of both pore sizes and have excellent osteogenic properties. Nanopores (i.e., pores with a diameter of 1–50 nm) can be included as well, to improve cell–material interactions by further enhancing the surface area of the scaffold. This article reviews fabrication techniques and properties of scaffolds with multiscale porosity, focusing on glass, ceramic, polymeric, and composite scaffolds. After discussing the structure of bone and how it inspired scaffolds for bone tissue engineering, pore nomenclature is introduced. Then, the techniques used to induce multiscale porosity, the nature of the pores created, and the effects of scaffold porosity on mechanical properties and biological activity of the scaffolds are discussed. The review concludes by providing an outlook for this field, including advancements that are made possible by computational modeling and artificial intelligence.

A chitosan-coated PCL/nano-hydroxyapatite aerogel integrated with a nanofiber membrane for providing antibacterial activity and guiding bone regeneration

“…The appropriate porosity will increase the permeability of the scaffold and facilitate the diffusion of nutrients, promoting cell growth and activity on the scaffold. In addition, the increased surface area of the porous scaffold can also lead to better cell attachment, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation 63,64 Geistlich Bio-Gide® and Geistlich Bio-Oss® are commonly used materials for treating clinical bone defects and guided bone tissue regeneration. They are widely utilized in combination and demonstrate favorable therapeutic outcomes.…”

Three-dimensional model of normal human dermal tissue using serial tissue sections

“…Porosity stands out as a crucial parameter in tissue engineering materials, exerting a notable impact on fluid transport properties within the dermis (Bohumila et al, 2023;Jeyachandran and Cerruti, 2023;Rasha et al, 2023). The three-dimensional structure of decellularized allogeneic dermis, reconstructed using micro-CT, yielded a calculated porosity of 68.3 ± 5.8% (Wang et al, 2015).…”

Evaluation of Chemical and Biological Properties of Biodegradable Composites Based on Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and Chitosan

“…Natural polymers are usually formed in animals, plants, and microorganisms, and it is natural polymers that hold the most promise for use in applications involving living organisms, such as food processing [ 4 ], environmental protection [ 5 ], and biomedicine [ 6 , 7 ]. Metal alloys, ceramics, etc., are now widely used in medical devices [ 8 , 9 ]. The primary drawback of these materials is their inability to biodegrade.…”