Geoarchaeological evidence of the AD 1642 Yellow River flood that destroyed Kaifeng, a former capital of dynastic China

Abstract

Rising global temperatures will increase the number of extreme weather events, creating new challenges for cities around the world. Archaeological research on the destruction and subsequent reoccupation of ancient cities has the potential to reveal geological and social dynamics that have historically contributed to making urban settings resilient to these extreme weather events. Using a combination of archaeological and geological methods, we examine how extreme flood events at Kaifeng, a former capital of dynastic China, have shaped the city’s urban resilience. Specifically, we focus on an extreme Yellow River flood event in AD 1642 that historical records suggest killed around 300,000 people living in Kaifeng. Our recent archaeological excavations have discovered compelling geological and archaeological evidence that corroborates these documents, revealing that the AD 1642 Yellow River flood destroyed Kaifeng’s inner city, entombing the city and its inhabitants within meters of silt and clay. We argue that the AD 1642 flood was extraordinarily catastrophic because Kaifeng’s city walls only partly collapsed, entrapping most of the flood waters within the city. Both the geology of the Yellow River floods as well as the socio-political context of Kaifeng shaped the city’s resilience to extreme flood events.

Geostatistical and geoarchaeological study of Holocene floodplains and site distributions on the Sha‐Ying River Basin, Central China

“…However, as one of the most active fluvial landforms that are profoundly affected by volatile hydrodynamic and sedimentation regimes, floodplains also produce highly complex environmental records (Boyer et al, 2006; A. Brown, 1997; A. G. Brown, 2002; T. Brown, 2002; Ferring, 2001; Howard & Macklin, 1999; Li et al, 2021; Nanson & Croke, 1992; Storozum et al, 2020). Unpacking the relationship between the evolution of floodplain environments and the history of human occupation therefore faces enormous challenges resulting from the intrinsic complexity of environmental processes and data abstraction procedures.…”

3D modeling of the impact of ancient Yellow River floods on urban landscapes: A new look at the late imperial landscape at the Shuntianmen Site of Kaifeng City, Henan Province, China

“…Some recent studies have endeavored to disentangle the complex relationship between floods and the society based on excavated environmental records. Storozum et al (2020) reported the geoarchaeological evidence of the flood that took place in 1642 AD and its devasting impact on the Kaifeng City. Wu, Liu, Ma et al (2019) also analyzed historical documents of this massive flood.…”

Water Conflicts: From Ancient to Modern Times and in the Future

“…After this disaster, the city was abandoned until 1662, when it was rebuilt under the rule of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty. Archaeological research in the city has provided evidence for the 1642 flood and subsequent occupation in 1662 [52]. It remained a rural backwater city of diminished importance thereafter and experienced several other less devastating floods.…”