Genetic evidence for alloparental care and frequent multiple paternity in the brooding sea star (Leptasterias sp.)

Temporal and spatial variation in population structure among brooding sea stars in the genus Leptasterias

“…Leptasterias occur in rocky intertidal and subtidal habitats, typically measure less than 6 cm from ray tip to ray tip (Chia, 1966; Fisher, 1930; Niesen, 1973), and mature around 2 years of age (Menge, 1974). Leptasterias are lecithotrophic and females brood their young underneath their rays until the fully developed juveniles crawl away to disperse (Barreto & Bauer, 2019; Chia, 1966; Menge, 1975). Due to their brooding life history and small size, these sea stars have limited dispersal to new sites.…”

Evidence of fostering in an internally brooding sea anemone

“…For instance, multiple species of mouth brooding cichlids have been found to recall mixed broods into their mouths for protection (Kellogg, Markert, Stauffer, & Kocher, 1998;Schaedelin, van Dongen, & Wagner, 2012;Sefc et al, 2012) and mixed maternity has been identified in the clutches of embryos carried on the underside of female six-rayed sea stars Leptasterias spp. (Bareto & Bauer, 2019).…”

The oldest evidence of brooding in a Devonian blastoid reveals the evolution of new reproductive strategies in early echinoderms

“…Members of the phylum possess a unique set of distinctive morphological characters, including pentaradial symmetry, a water vascular system and a mesodermal calcite skeleton, which enabled them to fill varied ecological niches (Smith 2005). Modern species have a wide range of reproductive strategies including forms of advanced parental investment (Gillespie & McClintock 2007; Barreto & Bauer 2019), with brooding of young known to occur in all living classes (Gillespie & McClintock 2007). Numerous extant species brood their young externally, with some crinoids protecting juveniles by attaching their bodies to the genital pinnules (Pertossi et al .…”

“…Internal or external brooding involves extended parental protection of eggs and young, particularly by the mother, and can reduce the negative impact of factors such as predation pressure or high sediment input. Brooding is an energy‐expensive behaviour but can greatly increase the survival rate of offspring (Barreto & Bauer 2019), although brooded individuals are usually deprived of the advantages of broad geographical dispersion (Cohen & Johnston 1987). It is thus assumed to be the result of a wide range of environmental stresses, such as restricted food availability, high risk of predation or ocean acidification (Pearse 1994).…”