Generalized CNS arousal: An elementary force within the vertebrate nervous system

Abstract

Why do animals and humans do anything at all? Arousal is the most powerful and essential function of the brain, a continuous function that accounts for the ability of animals and humans to respond to stimuli in the environment by producing muscular responses. Following decades of psychological, neurophysiological and molecular investigations, generalized CNS arousal can now be analyzed using approaches usually applied to physical systems. The concept of “criticality” is a state that illustrates an advantage for arousal systems poised near a phase transition. This property provides speed and sensitivity and facilitates the transition of the system into different brain states, especially as the brain crosses a phase transition from less aroused to more aroused states. In summary, concepts derived from applied mathematics of physical systems will now find their application in this area of neuroscience, the neurobiology of CNS arousal.

Wanting, liking and welfare: The role of affective states in proximate control of behaviour in vertebrates

“…Arousal was found to increase with increasing intensity of negative or positive valence (Calderon, Kilinc, Maritand, Banavar, & Pfaff, 2016;Kuppens, Tuerlinckx, Russell, & Barrett, 2013). Due to its less verbal approach, the study by Kron et al (2015) may well be more relevant | 693 GYGAX to non-human vertebrate species than the earlier and purely verbal studies.…”

“…() recently found support for a model including independent systems for negative and positive valence. Arousal was found to increase with increasing intensity of negative or positive valence (Calderon, Kilinc, Maritand, Banavar, & Pfaff, ; Kuppens, Tuerlinckx, Russell, & Barrett, ). Due to its less verbal approach, the study by Kron et al.…”

Bestial boredom: a biological perspective on animal boredom and suggestions for its scientific investigation

“…Arousal is non-unitary, instead being distributed across several different, interconnected brain structures (Calderon, Kilinc, Maritan, Banavar, & Pfaff, 2016;Jones, 2003). Within the brainstem, arousal is supported by six systems: (1) long glutaminergic nucleus gigantocellularis neurones in the reticular formation, which receive cortical and multisensory peripheral stimulation and have both ascending (cortical) and descending (autonomic, neuroendocrine, and motor) projections; (2) cholinergic ponto-mesencephalic neurons, which facilitate awakening and REM sleep; (3) the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, which helps elicit all motivations and reward-directed behaviour; (4) the adjacent nigrostriatal dopamine system, which increases arousal and reward-directed behaviour, and is involved in time perception (Jahanshahi, Jones, Dirnberger, & Frith, 2006;Simen & Matell, 2016); (5) the serotonergic raphe nuclei, most active during awake relaxation; and (6) the noradrenergic locus coeruleus, most active during stress or panic.…”

“…Activity in these systems is influenced by, and relayed to, the cortex and/or the body via further arousal systems within midbrain structures including the hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal forebrain {Jones, 2003 #4276;Calderon, 2016 #4278}. Most of these systems are highly conserved among vertebrates, with similar organisation in mammals, birds and reptiles at least (Calderon et al, 2016). Thus, many vertebrates could have the neurological apparatus to produce boredom-like states.…”

“…(Calderon et al, 2016), 'are more 'intelligent' species more prone to boredom?' (Mason et al, 2013), and 'which species are most at risk from the monotony common in captivity?'…”