Gender Perspective on Water Use and Management in the Context of Climate Change: A Case Study of Melamchi Watershed Area, Nepal

Abstract

Introduction Nepal is highly vulnerable to climate change and variability according to findings of Nepal National Adaptation Programme of Action, NAPA report (Ministry of Environment, 2010). The report showed a significant increase in mean annual rainfall based on 30 years rainfall trend. A recent study in Melamchi valley of the country shows that variability in temperature rose up to 10.5% over a 20-year period of 1978-1999 (Sujakhu et al., 2016). Climate change and variability observed in the mountains include irregular rainfall pattern, the early arrival of the monsoon, longer drying period, and droughts with negative impacts on agriculture, livelihood, and water security (Gentle & Maraseni, 2012). The temporal variability of monsoon rainfall has affected the daily life of people (Bartlett, Bharati, Pant, Hosterman, & McCornick, 2010). It is anticipated that climate change will most critically impact the hydrological system, water sources, and waterdependent human activities in coming years (International Water Management Institute [IWMI], 2012; National Research Council, 2012). Climate change will affect water sources, access to water, and quantity, escalating the vulnerability of rural people (Dhakal, Silwal, & Khanal, 2010). Natural spring water is the major source of household water use in the hill and mountain areas of Nepal. Exploration of household water use and management becomes an important research area in climate change context. The discourse on gender roles, needs, and capabilities to manage, access, and control over water is becoming a nuanced understanding of water gender research interface in the context of developing countries. The dynamic relationship between women and nature is outlined through feminist environmentalism, eco-feminism, and feminist political ecology and issues regarding women and water have emerged at international forums over recent decades (Shah & Kulkarni, 2008). The different gender roles and activities affect the environment (including changing climate) differently and have a different impact on gender. The response of and coping to the environment also differ from short-term to long-term adaptation (Ongoro & Ogara, 2012). Water availability and access condition, perception, 823078S GOXXX10.

Impacts of migration on time allocation of those who remain at home in rural Nepal

“…Second, these agrarian households rely on the labour of female household members due to farm labour shortages caused by outmigration of working‐age men (Jaquet et al, 2016; Ojha et al, 2017; Paudel et al, 2019; Shrestha, 2017). Third, many households rely on household members for domestic and care work and water and firewood collection due to limited access to water, electricity and paved roads (Shrestha et al, 2019). Fourth, some rural residents supplement their agricultural income by engaging in non‐agricultural activities, although non‐farm work opportunities are limited in rural areas (Ojha et al, 2017).…”

Gender inequality in urban water governance: Continuity and change in two towns of Nepal

“…Policy texts too often miss to mention “women” at all in water management laws and regulations, with limited chances of consideration of women's interests while implementing these policies (Udas & Zwarteveen, 2010; Zwarteveen & Meinzen‐Dick, 2001). Even when there are decentralized policies with the provision of women's representation (which varies by country), what is lacking is a genuine engagement of women in the formulation and implementation of water sector policies (Shrestha & Clement, 2019; Shrestha et al., 2019). Earlier studies on gender and participation show that despite their presence in the decision‐making bodies, many women could not express themselves as they felt inhibited in expressing their views in front of village elders (men) due to lack of confidence (Meinzen‐Dick & Zwarteveen, 1998; Regmi & Fawcett, 1999; Satyal et al., 2020).…”

“…When climate change deepens the uncertainty of water availability, people's hardship is escalated in securing water access for their lives and livelihoods. Women share disproportionately higher levels of climate change‐induced water scarcity impacts as they are the ones who take responsibility for managing water for drinking, household consumptions, farming, and even water‐based income generation activities in the majority of low‐income urban areas (Shrestha et al., 2019).…”

On the realities of gender inclusion in climate change policies in Nepal

“…Climate change worsens this lop-sided gender dynamic by further reducing women's adaptive capacity thus making them more vulnerable to climate shocks than their male counterparts (Mainlay and Tan 2012). Additional labor and increased household workload of women (as fetching water, fuelwood, and fodder becomes increasingly timeconsuming) due to climate change and resource depletion hinders their engagement and productivity in other activities such as farming and education, hampers nutrition and exposes them to greater safety and health threats (Mainlay and Tan 2012;Shrestha, Chapagain, and Ghimire 2019). Increasing vulnerability to climate risk of subsistence agriculturepeople's major work in Nepal (CBS, 2014b)hits women harder as the exodus of males leads to increasing feminization of this practice (Bhattarai, Beilin, and Ford 2015).…”