Gender inequality in urban water governance: Continuity and change in two towns of Nepal

Abstract

Gender‐based inequality has long been recognized as a challenge in water governance and urban development. Women do most of the water collection‐related tasks in the majority of low‐income country's urban areas, as they do in rural areas for drinking, household consumption, kitchen gardening, and farming. However, their voice is rarely heard in water governance. When climate change exacerbates water scarcity, it becomes harder for people to secure water with more pronounced effects on women. Drawing on the narratives of men and women involved in water management practices and also the views of the stakeholders who are part of water resource management in two towns in Nepal, this paper demonstrates emerging forms of gender inequality concerning access to and control over water resources, as well as associated services such as sanitation. We found that women's voice in water governance is systematically excluded, and such gender‐based disadvantage intersects with economic disadvantage as women in low‐income poor urban settlements are experiencing additional difficulty in accessing water and sanitation services. Gender inequity persists in the urban water sector, and of course the wider social structures, despite some progressive policy changes in recent years, such as the 30% quota reserved for women in local‐level water management bodies in Nepal. The paper concludes that tackling gender inequity in water management requires a transformative approach that seriously takes into account women's voice, critical awareness, and open deliberation over the causes and consequences of the current approaches and practices. Moreover, gender‐inclusive outcomes on water management are linked to changes in areas outside of the water sector, such as property ownership structures that constrain or enable women's access to water and related services.

Examining water and gender narratives and realities

“…For example, based on observations in Kenya, Hannah et al (2021) propose that measuring success should focus on individual‐level participation rather than gender ratios alone. In Nepal, Bhattarai et al (2021) report that in some cases women leaders have been able to challenge the patriarchal systems that minimize their water problems, but call for open deliberation regarding the causes and consequences of the existing approaches and practices. Further, gender and social structures need to be questioned and changed, as masculinities are also changing, such as not always being the main breadwinner, taking on unpaid care work, or holding traditional masculine occupations (McLean, 2021; Rost, 2021).…”

“…In some parts of the world, women are outright banned from participating in these forums (Caretta, 2015). This is compounded by related exclusions, such as women's limited ownership of land and other household properties, which may be needed for membership in water user groups (Adams et al, 2018; Bhattarai et al, 2021).…”

Urban water security under a changing climate: Is Nepal's water policy on the right track?

“…This question resonates with research claiming that entitlement to environmental resources, together with institutional arrangements in place, is an important dimension of adaptation to climate risks (Ribot, 2013). The assessment of water rights is also important in relation to gender and social equity, particularly in the context of Nepal where such social differences are deeply entrenched, underpinning the adaptation of social and ecological systems in the Himalayas (Bhattarai et al, 2015;Bhattarai et al, 2021).…”

“…On gender aspects of water governance, all of the currently active water policies and institutions are largely silent on tackling gender-based disparities in water governance (Bhattarai et al, 2021). However, some of the documents like Water Resource Strategy 2002 and NWP 2005 highlight the importance of women's participation in water management, but they are tokenistic and focused on very limited view of participation.…”

Inequity in water distribution and quality: A study of mid‐hill town of Nepal

“…Equity becomes core issue of water management as one of the fundamental causes of global water crisis and inaccessibility of water to all is not unavailability of water resources but inequitable distribution (Bakker, 2007;Calow & Mason, 2014). While equitable distribution of water provisions that every person shares access and entitlements to safe and affordable water, studies from Nepali cities informed that access to water encompasses multiple elements such as, inter alia, gender, ethnicity, class, spatial locations inclusive of core, semiperiphery, and periphery, levels of income, participation in decision making, and power relations (Bhattarai et al, 2021;Morales-Novelo et al, 2018;Pokharel et al, 2019;Raut & Pandey, 2020).…”