Gender Identities in Organized Sports—Athletes' Experiences and Organizational Strategies of Inclusion

Abstract

In relation to conceptualizing sports, beliefs about sex binary and male hegemony are dominant. To match these assumptions and provide level playing fields, sport systems are based on sex-segregation. Thus, people who do not fit into or reject fitting into sex categories are hindered from participating in sports, particularly organized sports. Studies on social exclusion of gender-identity minorities in sports mainly adopt a qualitative approach and focus on Anglophone countries. This research is the first to provide a comprehensive picture of the experiences of LGBT+ athletes in organized sports settings in Europe and is based on a quantitative online survey (n = 2,282). The current paper draws special attention to differences between cisgender and non-cisgender athletes (including transgender men, transgender women, non-binary, and non-identifying individuals). Besides athletes' experiences, organizational strategies of inclusion, derived from qualitative interviews with stakeholders from sport systems in five European countries (Germany, Scotland, Austria, Italy, and Hungary) are examined. Theoretically anchored in Cunningham's (2012) multilevel model for understanding the experiences of LGBT+ individuals and Meyer's (2003) minority stress model, the paper aims to (1) analyze the assessment of transnegativity and (2) examine negative experiences (prevalence, forms, perpetrators) of LGBT+ athletes from organized sport contexts in Europe; and (3) discuss inclusive strategies in sports organizations in Europe. Data reveal that transnegativity is perceived as a major problem in European sports, and non-cisgender athletes are the most vulnerable group, suffering particularly from structural discrimination. The implementation of inclusive strategies for non-cisgender athletes is perceived as a complex and essential task, but the sports organizations in the five countries differ substantially in terms of the status of implementation.

Homo- and transnegativity in sport in Europe: Experiences of LGBT+ individuals in various sport settings

“…Therefore, female transgender individuals often face more misogyny and mistrust than their male transgender counterparts (Fink, 2008). Further analysis of our data with a focus on transgender individuals in organized sport (Braumüller et al, 2020) support the call for a shift of discourses towards the disadvantages trans individuals are facing in sport by Lucas-Carr and Krane (2012).…”

Parental Perceived Discrimination and Youth Participation in Out-Of-School Sports

“…A salient result that supported our original hypothesis was that perceived discrimination by parents because of their child’s sexual orientation or gender identity associated with a lower likelihood of the child participating in out-of-school school sports. Sexual stigma has been observed within team sports settings and it thought to contribute to participation avoidance in individuals of a sexual minority or of a trans or non-binary gender identity [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. This phenomenon does seem to be of higher prevalence in males of a sexual minority compared to females [ 21 , 22 , 33 ].…”

Gender identity and Olympic games: The iridescence in Tokyo 2020

“…Some articles have been questioned because of putting gender-identity minorities who have faced various unreasonable treatment in sports together for research (Kettley-Linsell, 2020;Lucas-Carr & Krane, 2011;Semerjian, 2018), especially trans prejudice in Sports (Cunningham & Pickett, 2017). most studies in LGBTIQ+ group and sports have only been carried out in a small number of English-speaking areas such as the United States, Britain, Australia, Ireland (Ceatha et al, 2019;Braumüller et al, 2020;Kavoura & Kokkonen, 2020;Robertson et al, 2019;Storr, 2021). Braumüller et al (2020) provided a comprehensive study of the sports participation of LGBT+ groups (athletes and non-athletes) for the first time in continental Europe.…”

“…most studies in LGBTIQ+ group and sports have only been carried out in a small number of English-speaking areas such as the United States, Britain, Australia, Ireland (Ceatha et al, 2019;Braumüller et al, 2020;Kavoura & Kokkonen, 2020;Robertson et al, 2019;Storr, 2021). Braumüller et al (2020) provided a comprehensive study of the sports participation of LGBT+ groups (athletes and non-athletes) for the first time in continental Europe. Few studies have investigated from other regions, such as Asia and Africa.…”

“…Moreover, like family background or social class (Bourdieu, 1988), gender concepts also play a prominent role of power and social control in sports institutions, trying to discourage those who question them from participating. This reflects sex segregation's dominance in conceptualizing sports, exceptionally organized sports (Braumüller et al, 2020). In addition, competitive sports force individuals to "align themselves as female or male".…”