Gender and Work in Norwegian Family Farm Businesses

Abstract

The traditional way of organising agricultural production in Norway has been through family farming. A family farm is defined by the ownership of the farm through kinship over a number of generations. This article examines structural changes on Norwegian family farms based on the impact of increased competition and falling prices and subsidies. The strategy traditionally employed has been to increase total household income on the farm through working off-farm. We map changes in income allocation and work strategies on Norwegian family farms over time, changes in income allocation and work strategies among men and women on family farms over time and we show income allocation and work strategies among men and women as farmers and as farmers' spouses. Through a quantitative analysis of data on Norwegian farmers from 1987 until 2004, we show that there are continuing changes in work and income allocation on Norwegian farms. The trend is a higher dependence on off-farm income. However, this development is not only explained by more off-farm work by farmerswhich is an indication of lower value of farm work itself -but to a large degree this is a result of the increasing off-farm work of farm women. While at the same time more women are entering agriculture as farmers, we find clear evidence of differences in the organisation of farms operated by men and women. While male farmers are professionalising as 'one-man farmers,' female farmers to a larger degree depend (voluntarily or not) on their partner's assistance in the farm work.

The Uplands after neoliberalism? – The role of the small farm in rural sustainability

“…The aims were full-time farming and getting rid of pluriactivity, but this never fully succeeded (Jones and Rønningen, 2007). Bjørkhaug and Blekesaune (2008) observed the strong trend towards increasing off-farm work by farmers and farm women, to the extent that two thirds of net farm household income from farmer and spouse was off-farm income in 2003 (Bjørkhaug and Blekesaune, 2008;Statistics Norway, 2009a). Today, only 21% of farms have no registered income from outside agriculture (Logstein, 2010).…”

“…Critics also claim that the allodial principle prevents innovation and adaptation to a changing world (Aanesland and Holm, 2002). On the other hand, since allodial law was amended in 1975 it has encouraged daughters to take over farms (Bjørkhaug and Blekesaune, 2008), and this is seen as an important contribution to gender equality and recruitment of young women to rural areas. Price controls are also criticised on the grounds that the regulated price reduces incentives to sell.…”

Exploring the Sociology of Agriculture: Family Farmers in Norway - Future or Past Food Producers?

“…Wage income from off-farm work has exceeded farm income on the average Norwegian farm since the 1980's (Jervell and Løyland, 1998). During the same period, the average working hours on Norwegian farms increased (Bjørkhaug & Blekesaune, 2008). This decreasing value of farm work occurred due to changes in agricultural subsidies and commodity prices, but also as a result of more women working longer hours off the farm.…”

“…Several studies later showed how part-time farming has developed as a sustainable format of structural adjustment over time (e.g. Bjørkhaug & Blekesaune, 2008;Blekesaune, 1996a). It has been not been shown that part-time farming replaces family farming due to definitional differences, but rather that family farming currently is dependent on off-farm income, as is the continuation of family farming in Norway.…”

Lost in Transnational Space? Migrant Farm Workers in Rural Districts

“…However, some characteristics seem to apply to most migrant workers in the Norwegian agricultural sector. Firstly, Norwegian agricultural production is typified by its small scale and family farming, combined with very strong state regulation (Bjørkhaug and Blekesaune 2008). Farms are dispersed across the country, with farmers living on their plots rather than agglomerated in villages.…”