Gelatin–chitosan–cellulose nanocrystals as an acellular scaffold for wound healing application: fabrication, characterisation and cytocompatibility towards primary human skin cells

Abstract

Biopolymers that mimic the extracellular matrix are favourable in tissue engineering. However, the rapid degradation and the lack of mechanical and enzymatic stabilities of these biopolymers prompt researchers to composite different biopolymers. In this study, we aim to develop an acellular gelatin-chitosan-cellulose nanocrystal (GCCNC) scaffold as a potential wound dressing. The GCCNC mixture was homogenised via ultrasonication and the genipin crosslinking was performed by magnetic stirring. The mixture was then frozen at − 80 °C for 6 h and freeze-dried. The effects of different ratios of gelatin and chitosan with cellulose nanocrystals on the physiochemical properties, mechanical properties, and cellular biocompatibility were studied. Our results herein showed that G3C7CNC demonstrated a homogenous interconnected porous structure with a good porosity (67.37 ± 9.09%) and pore size (148.46 ± 48.68 µm), acceptable swelling ratio (1071.11 ± 140.26%), adequate water vapour transmission rate (315.59 ± 25.27 g/m2/day), low contact angle (70.21 ± 6.79°), and sufficient mechanical strength (modulus of 64.67 ± 12.42 MPa). The lower biodegradation rate in the G3C7CNC (0.06 ± 0.01 mg/hr) compared to G10CNC (0.48 ± 0.07 mg/hr) together with the absence of glass transition phenomenon indicated an increase in both enzymatic and thermal stabilities. Furthermore, G3C7CNC was non-cytotoxic and biocompatible with human epidermal keratinocytes (HEKs) and human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). The presence of collagen type I and α-smooth muscle actin expression in HDFs, together with the expression of cytokeratin-14 in HEKs, demonstrated our scaffold’s ability to maintain normal skin physiological functions. Therefore, this study proposes that the fabricated GCCNC scaffold could serve as a potential acellular skin substitute in managing chronic wounds.

Interference Effects of Commercial Persistent Luminescence Materials on Rice Germination and Seedling Growth

“…The physical phase composition and lattice structure of PLMs can vary due to differences in their preparation processes. Notably, these structural variations often lead to changes in the physicochemical properties of the materials, which in turn can affect their interactions with plants [21][22][23][24][25]. As observed in Figure 1, the diffraction peak intensities of rPLM and bPLM align closely with the corresponding peak positions in the PDF standard cards 01-075-0265 (Sr .75 Ca .25 S) and 00-015-0016 (Sr 2 MgSi 2 O 7 ), respectively.…”

“…Plants 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20 25.69% and 20.70%, respectively. Under gPLM and bPLM treatment, the content of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b in rice showed a trend of first decreasing and then increasing.…”

Magnetic Nanoparticle Support with an Ultra-Thin Chitosan Layer Preserves the Catalytic Activity of the Immobilized Glucose Oxidase

“…It is worth noting that the stabilization of CS on the support can be improved via CS cross-linking. As cross-linking agents, a number of compounds have been utilized including glutaraldehyde [ 40 , 41 , 42 ], genipin [ 36 , 43 , 44 ], and sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. Glutaraldehyde is a popular cross-linking agent because its aldehyde groups immediately form covalent bonds with amino groups.…”

“…The use of this cross-linker is often warranted if the material application is not sensitive to glutaraldehyde shortcomings [ 40 ]. In genipin, an aldehyde group is formed upon interaction with an amino group via the opening of the dihydropyran ring followed by the reaction of an aldehyde with a secondary amino group, resulting in covalent bonding [ 36 , 43 , 44 ]. Genipin is often preferred in biomedical applications when its high cost is not an issue [ 43 ].…”

“…In genipin, an aldehyde group is formed upon interaction with an amino group via the opening of the dihydropyran ring followed by the reaction of an aldehyde with a secondary amino group, resulting in covalent bonding [ 36 , 43 , 44 ]. Genipin is often preferred in biomedical applications when its high cost is not an issue [ 43 ]. Chandra et al demonstrated the formation of ionic cross-linking between CS-protonated amino groups (−NH 3 + ) and tri-polyphosphate anionic groups of TPP on the surface of magnetite NPs for the removal of heavy metals from wastewater [ 45 ].…”