Gaze and eye contact: A research review.

Abstract

Research on gaze and eye contact was organized within the framework of Patterson's (1982) sequential functional model of nonverbal exchange. Studies were reviewed showing how gaze functions to (a) provide information, (b) regulate interaction, (c) express intimacy, (d) exercise social control, and (e) facilitate service and task goals. Research was also summarized that describes personal, experiential, relational, and situational antecedents of gaze and reactions to gaze. Directions were given for a functional analysis of the relation between gaze and physiological responses. Attribution theories were integrated into the sequential model for making predictions about people's perceptions of their own gazing behavior and the gazing behavior of others. Data on people's accuracy in reporting their own and others' gaze were presented and integrated with related findings in attribution research. The sequential model was used to analyze research studies measuring the interaction between gaze and personal and contextual variables. Methodological and measurement issues were discussed and directions were outlined for future research. These lovely lamps, these windows of the soul. (Du Bartas) 1 The eyes have one language everywhere. (George Herbert) There are often voice and words in a silent look. (Ovid) For eyes can speak and eyes can understand. (Chapman)

The observer observed: Frontal EEG asymmetry and autonomic responses differentiate between another person's direct and averted gaze when the face is seen live

“…Gaze direction seems to have an important role in gathering socially relevant information from other people (George & Conty, 2008;Kleinke, 1986). Monitoring of others' gaze is needed especially in the initiation of interaction, as it aids in defining the nature of dyadic relations (Exline et al, 1965) and motor plans (Nummenmaa et al, 2009) in the first place.…”

Brain activation during eye gaze discrimination in stable schizophrenia

“…Ocular regions and their functions, are instrumental in establishing interpersonal relatedness and conveying emotional information (Kleinke 1986). In schizophrenia, poor eye contact represents a common negative symptom (Andreasen 1984, Pitman et al 1987, which can affect interpersonal engagement and produce misperception of gaze direction, possibly leading to ideas of reference and paranoia.…”

Attention during social interaction in children with autism: Comparison to specific language impairment, typical development, and links to social cognition

“…Critical to social interaction is the interlocutor, engaging you in mutual gaze, taking their turn to speak to you, as well as to listen to you, all the while modulating their gaze and facial expressions accordingly (Kleinke, 1986;Riby, DohertySneddon & Whittle, 2012). You, as the conversational partner must take your cue to respond to a question when asked, and show interest when listening by attending to the face of the interlocutor (Doherty-Sneddon, .…”